Browsing by Supervisor "Acker, Loren E."
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Item Facilitation of interpeer affection in young children: the use of a story reading and stimulus fading procedure(1986) Altman, Irwin Morris; Acker, Loren E.Interpeer physical affectionate and verbal appreciative responses were directly manipulated in day care children. A Pretreatment Baseline was carried out to measure any '' natural" or pre- existing occurrences of those physical and verbal responses. Next, the treatment--a story reading procedure that included modelling, role playing, stimulus fading, and praise- -was employed and it was successful in facilitating interpeer physical affection and verbal appreciation in the treatment setting. However, when posttreatment measures were compared to those in the Pretreatment Baseline, only the verbal appreciation response showed an increase in frequency. This reluctance of the children to perform interpeer physical affectionate responses was further underscored when a toy dog was made the object of the affection in the Posttreatment Baseline context. Although the children had not received any previous training with the dog, they showed an increase in dog-directed physical affection and verbal appreciation. In an effort to maximize the probability of occurrence of interpeer physical affectionate responses in play settings, two additional methods were designed (i.e., Instructional Control Procedure and Dog/Assimilation Procedure). After these methods were employed, the frequency of interpeer physical affection was finally increased from pretreatment levels. Although it is encouraging that interpeer physical affection can be facilitated, the effort required to achieve this goal was great. The latter is especially true in light of the aggression research which demonstrates that physical aggression is easily facilitated. Observational research of children in natural settings and the reactions of the parents, caregivers, and peers to the children's performance of inter peer affectionate responses is needed. This research could elucidate the dynamics which underlie the possible differences in the children's willingness to engage in aggressive as opposed to affectionate behaviours. Finally, future research must ascertain the sources for the children's reluctance to engage in interpeer physical affectionate behaviours if social learning strategies for the development of affectionate and gentle behaviour s in our children are to be realized.Item Film provoked aggression in children: effects of prior affection training(1979) Marton, John P.; Acker, Loren E.This research investigated the effects of prior affection training on subsequent television provoked aggression. The research manipulated the nature of children's training with the object (a stuffed Mickey Mouse toy) toward which aggression was later modelled via television. Four and five year old children attending day care centres in Victoria, B.C. participated. Affection training consisted of the experimenter modelling a sequence of care taking acts directed at "Mickey''; feeding, cleaning, resting, etc. The experimenter modelled each act in a manner emphasizing gentle, affectionate components (encapsulating Mickey close to body with large surface area of contact, drawing Mickey close to face, incorporating slow and gentle movement, and interspersing stroking and rocking motions). The experimenter instructed and prompted imitation of each act by the child and provided physical and verbal guidance, as required, to ensure that affectionate components were present in the child's behaviour. Satisfactory imitations were verbally consequated. Teacher training was a control training procedure consisting of modelling, prompting, and guiding a parallel sequence of caretaking acts. However, this procedure emphasized teaching components of behaviours and was devoid of overt physical affection. Affection and teacher training procedures were matched with respect to time spent with the experimenter, verbal consequences received from the experimenter, number of behaviours trained, etc. Another control group received no training. Televised aggression, shown to each of these children, depicted a sequence of caretaking acts similar to those in the training phase. However, these acts were modelled in a harsh, rough, aggressive manner. Subsequent effects on behaviour were assessed in two setting conditions. In the prompted play setting (immediately following the televised aggression), the experimenter prompted the child to engage in each of the eight previously modelled caretaking acts (without specifying the manner in which the act was to be performed). Children were observed with respect to the character of their caretaking as regards the occurrence of directly imitative aggression (aggressive behaviours matching those televised) and generalized aggression (other aggressive behaviours). In the following free play setting, the children played with Mickey without specific prompts and occurrences of the two forms of aggression were again scored. Interobserver agreement was over 90% for directly imitative aggression and over 70% for generalized aggression. Data on the occurrences of affectionate and teaching imitations were also obtained through out. Additional experimental conditions consisted of teacher training followed by nonaggressive television (as a control to determine the effects of the televised aggression in terms of provoking aggression) and affection training followed by aggressive modelling directly followed by free play (to determine the role of presence/absence of prompted play in contributing to free play effects). The hypothesis tested was that affection training would buffer the occurrence of television provoked aggression. The results indicate that during prompted play only directly imitative aggression was provoked by the aggressive videotape. No significant differences in occurrences of directly imitative aggression were obtained between affection trained and teacher trained children. During free play both directly imitative and generalized aggression were provoked. During free play there were significantly fewer occurrences of aggression in affection trained children than in teacher trained children, by both the multi variate test for the two forms of aggression and by the univariate test for generalized aggression. The results are discussed in terms of the social demand characteristics of the two play settings, procedural issues, and presumed histories for affectionate and aggressive behaviours.Item Modeling influences on senior citizens(1978) Lustig, Stephen David; Acker, Loren E.Modeling influences on senior citizens were investigated in three experiments. Videotaped models were portrayed playing a game of skill in order to assess their effect upon senior citizens playing the same game. The task developed resembled a bowling game, but required the subjects to move back from a centre line before trying to hit the target. The distances that subjects chose in correspondence to where the models moved were the indication of modeling effects. Experiment I compared the effects of a Peer Model with a no model Control. Subjects exposed to the Peer Model moved significantly further from the target than did Control subjects, providing an indication of modeling influences. Experiment II was a systematic replication of Experiment I that was designed to compare influences that result from exposure to various aged models. The models, all male, approximated generational differences (Child, Adult, Peer), and were all portrayed playing the game of skill used in Experiment I. Each of the models moved the same distance from the target, demonstrated identical behaviours in playing the game, and were equally successful in their attempts. Exposure to each of the videotaped models significantly increased the distances from the target that senior citizens moved compared with the Control Group subjects. The similarity between the means obtained in Experiments I and II for both the Peer Model and Control Groups suggested that these data were reliable and, together with the influence of other aged models, extended the generality of modeling influences obtained in Experiment I. Subjects were fairly accurate in estimating the ages "of the models observed, suggesting that they were discriminating that aspect of the independent variable in which the experimenter was interested. Child Model subjects tended to move furthest from the target, yet reported less influence compared to subjects in other modeling conditions. Verbal ratings of influence appeared to bear little relationship to the behavioural influence demonstrated. In Experiment III, senior citizens were asked to complete a questionnaire after viewing one of the videotapes (Child, Adult, or Peer), but did not try the task depicted. Experiment III sought to evaluate some of the attitudes that senior citizens would have toward aspects of the videotaped models presented in Experiments I and II. Subjects' ratings yielded no significant differences among models with respect to which one the subjects might feel best able to compete against. Each model was judged to be equally competent at the task, while generalized perceptions of competency for each age group led to adults being rated as most competent. The task itself was seen as being significantly more like an adult's game than a child's. The subjects' predictions of how far back they would move as a result of exposure to each videotaped model produced considerably more similarity between conditions than actually arose when subjects (in Experiment II) behaviourally demonstrated the influence of models. Speculations of the subjects regarding the findings of Experiment II appeared to produce some consensus. The influence of the Child Model was accounted for in terms of "if he can do it, so can I ", while the denial of his influence was justified by demeaning his ability ("he's too inexperienced").Item Nonreinforced imitation in children: effects of prior reinforcement histories(1974) Oliver, Peter Roger; Acker, Loren E.In three experiments, the effects of prior reinforcement for complying or not complying with adult instructions were assessed with respect to the amount of nonreinforced imitation which occurred in a subsequent modelling situation. Kindergarten children were first reinforced for following or not following a series of instructions in a nonimitative setting. The occurrence of nonreinforced imitation was subsequently assessed in a dual-model paradigm in which one experimenter (SD model) modelled behaviours and rewarded the child for imitating while a second experimenter (S-delta model) modelled both similar and dissimilar behaviours but never reinforced the child for imitating. In all cases, the S-delta model was the same experimenter who had previously reinforced the children for compliance or noncompliance. The prediction was tested that children who had previously been rein forced for following adult instructions (Compliance Group) would show larger amounts of nonreinforced imitation than children who had no prior experience with the S- delta model (Control Group). Also tested was the prediction that children who had previously been reinforced for not following adult instructions (Noncompliance Group) would show lesser occurrences of nonreinforced imitation than children in the control group. In Exp. I, one group of children were reinforced for complying with adult instructions prior to the modelling situation while a control group received no prior experience with the S-delta model. As predicted, the amount of nonreinforced imitation was higher following compliance training than in the control group. Control Ss in Exp. I were not given any prior experience with the S-delta model as had the children in the compliance group. Consequently, the increased amount of nonreinforced imitation following compliance training could have been due to prior experience with a rewarding model per se. To preclude this possibility, Exp. II directly replicated the procedures of Exp. I with the addition of a third condition in which a separate group of children were first reinforced for not complying with the same instructions given to the compliance group. Since children in this noncompliance group received approximately the same amount of reinforcement as children in the compliance group, it served as a control for the effects of prior rewarding experiences per seas well as a test of whether nonreinforced imitation could be decreased following noncompliance training. Exp. II successfully replicated the results of Exp. I. Children previously reinforced for following instructions displayed significantly more nonreinforced imitation than both control Ss and children given the same amount of rewarding experience with the S-delta model but for noncompliant behaviour. Children in the noncompliance group imitated fewer behaviours without reinforcement than control Ss but this difference was not statistically significant. Lack of a significant decrease appeared to be associated with sex differences with boys requiring additional training procedures than those used with girls in order to establish noncompliant behaviour. These differences in training noncompliance could have affected nonreinforced imitation for boys to a greater extent than for girls. Exp. III replicated the procedures of Exp. II while strengthening and standardizing noncompliance training for both boys and girls. Exp. III also varied the sex of the S-del ta model so that an equal number of boys and girls were exposed to both male and female models. Prior reinforcement for compliance again increased the occurrence of nonreinforced imitation, successfully replicating the results of Exps. I and II. Noncompliance training also resulted in a significant decrease in nonreinforced imitation compared to both compliance and control groups. These effects were independent of the sex of the child and/or the sex of the S-delta model.Item Patterns of generalization between imitative affection and aggression in young children(1980) Surkes, Jean Kathleen; Acker, Loren E.This study was designed to explore patterns of generalization between imitative affection and aggression, between verbal and motoric forms of expressing affection and aggression, and to compare the rates of acquisition and extinction for verbal and motoric imitative affection and aggression among young children. Four groups of seven year old boys and girls were trained (with continuous reinforcement) to imitate one of the following classes of behaviour: physical affection, physical aggression, verbal affection or verbal aggression directed towards a stuffed "Mickey Mouse.'' Following training, probes for generalization to the other three classes of (non-trained) behaviours were introduced. Throughout this generalization phase which closely approximated the typical generalized imitation paradigm, continuous reinforcement of training behaviour imitation was maintained at a ratio of one training behaviour presentation to every one probe presentation. The children were then subjected to a two phase extinction procedure: massed training behaviour extinction trials (zero reinforcement) followed by presentations of all four classes of modelled stimuli with continued non- reinforcement for training behaviour imitation (pseudo-generalization). No significant group by sex interactions, nor main effects for sex were found in any phase of the study. Also, no significant main effects for groups were found in the acquisition of verbal or motoric imitative affection or aggression, nor in the rate of training behaviour imitation throughout the generalization phase. During extinction, however, the group trained in physical aggression showed a higher rate of training behaviour imitation than did any of the other three groups, during both massed training behaviour extinction trials and the subsequent presentation of all four classes of modelled stimuli. The extinction data were subjected to three separate analyses and while the physical aggression group showed a significantly higher rate of imitation than each of the other three groups in at least one of the two analyses based on the massed extinction data, the main effect for groups fell just short of significance in the analysis of the training behaviour data from the pseudo-generalization phase. To facilitate examination of the patterns of generalization, the three probes for each group were redefined as generalization across emotion (EG), generalization across mode (MG), and generalization across both (EMG). In the traditional generalization phase, significant differences in frequency of probe imitations were found between all pairs of probes in the following order: EG>MG>EMG. In the analyses for group differences, the group trained in physical aggression showed significantly less generalization across emotion than did any of the other three groups. No significant differences were found among the groups in frequency of MG or EMG. In the pseudo- generalization phase during extinction, most subjects had ceased imitating any of the probes and thus, there was no longer any difference across the probes in their frequency of imitation. However, the group trained in physical affection showed a higher rate of EG than did any of the other groups, the differences being significant in two of the three between-group comparisons. Again, there were no significant group differences in MG or EMG. The results of this study support previous research showing that within modal generalization occurs more frequently than cross modal generalization even when the latter is between physical and verbal expressions of the same emotion. The results also indicate that the patterns of generalization between affection and aggression are not necessarily reciprocal; i.e., there was a high frequency of generalization from physical affection to physical aggression but relatively little generalization in the reverse direction. And finally, while no differences were observed among the four classes of behaviour during acquisition, physical aggression was found to have the highest rate of imitation during extinction, both as a training behaviour and as a probe.Item Some determinants of affectionate behavior in young children(1976) Pirot, Michael; Acker, Loren E.This research is concerned with the determinants of affectionate behavior in young children, and is focused upon the uncovering of the means by which to increase positive social behavior (e.g. modelling of prosocial behavior), rather than being concerned with negative social behavior and the means by which to decelerate it (e.g. punishment and extinction with their potentially unfortunate social consequences). In two experiments, the determinants of affectionate behavior in young children were explored. Experiment I was the study of the effects of modelling and instruction upon imitative, concurrent, and free-play affectionate behavior of young children towards a toy object (teddy bear). The experiment consisted of two phases: a modelled caretaking or an instructed caretaking training phase followed by a free-play phase during which generalization data were taken. Three groups were set in Experiment I: a) an Imitative Caretaking group in which caretaking behavior was modelled, with assessment of imitative caretaking and concurrent affectionate behavior; b) an Instructed Caretaking group in which instructions to caretake were given, with assessment of instructed caretaking and concurrent affectionate behavior; and c) a Control group, which received no training. All three groups were assessed as regards free-play affectionate behavior and aggressive behavior in a single phase free- play period. The results of Experiment I demonstrated t hat the Imitative Care taking group produced a mean imitation rate of 69% during training and t hat this training produced significantly more free-play affectionate behavior than did t he Instructed Caretaking and Control groups. The - ii Imitative Caretaking group also produced significantly more concurrent affectionate behavior than the Instructed Caretaking group. The Instructed Caretaking group did not produce significantly more free-play affectionate behavior than the Control group. There was some evidence that physical contact and imitative caretaking may have been the effective variables producing the free-play affectionate behavior of the Imitative Caretaking group. Consequently these factors were systematically varied in Experiment II in order that their effects upon free-play affectionate behavior could be assessed. Experiment II was conducted to explore the effects of imitative caretaking, non-imitative caretaking, and imitative neutral physical contact upon free-play affectionate and concurrent affectionate behavior. The experiment consisted of two phases: a training phase followed by a free-play phase (consisting of two periods) during which generalization data were taken. Three groups were set in Experiment II: a) an Imitative Caretaking group (replicate of a group of the same name in Experiment I); b) a Non-Imitative Caretaking group (modelled caretaking kept constant, but physical contact obviated); and c) an Imitative Neutral Physical Contact group (physical contact kept constant, but the caretaking context obviated). The results of Experiment II demonstrated that (imitative) caretaking and physical contact produced in imitation in the Imitative Caretaking group interacted as variables in such a manner to produce significantly more free-play affectionate behavior relative to the Non-Imitative Care taking and Imitative Neutral Physical Contact groups. The increased free-play and concurrent affectionate behavior demonstrated by the Imitative Caretaking group of Experiment I was replicated by a similar group in Experiment II. These results suggest that these phenomena are reliable. The magnitude of treatment effect for the Groups factor was significantly increased by Experiment II as compared to Experiment I and thus increased the percentage of variance accounted for. Also the variability of the Imitative Caretaking group of Experiment II was significantly decreased for the girls, but not for the boys. This suggests that greater experimental control was accomplished by requiring that the children in imitation groups in Experiment II produce 100% criterion imitation (which was not demanded in Experiment I where the imitation rate was free to vary, producing 69% for the Imitative Care taking group). Experiments I and II showed nearly nil amounts of aggressive behavior during training and free-play, and as such, conclusions about this rate are tenuous. Sex was not a significant factor in almost every analysis of both experiments, suggesting that for three- to five-year-old children these treatment effects are not sex-dependent. The generalization data of both experiments were taken in a cue-minimal/model-absent context, and as such provided a stringent test of the ability of the treatments to generalize to the free-play period. The Imitative Caretaking group produced generalization effects, suggesting that the effects of this treatment may generalize across a variety of stimulus situations. Consequently the techniques created by these experiments may provide teachers and parents a reliable means by which - iv to increase positive social behavior.Item The supplemental effects of feedback on work performance under a monetary incentive system(2018-06-26) Agnew, Judy Lynn; Acker, Loren E.Individual monetary incentive systems usually include performance feedback as part of the intervention package. However, there is no experimental evidence to suggest that feedback has any functional effect on work performance above and beyond the effects of the incentive systems. It may be that incentive systems have such powerful effects on work behavior that the additional contingencies provided by a feedback system are unnecessary. The present laboratory study investigated the supplemental effects of feedback on work performance under a monetary incentive system. Four subjects were hired to work seven hours a day for four and a half weeks. The experimental work task was a simulation of a proof operator’s job at a bank and involved typing dollar values of “checks” into a computer. Subjects were paid a base salary per session plus incentive money for performance above a criterion. The main dependent variable was the number of correctly completed checks per session. The amount of time off task and rate of responding were also investigated. Subjects were exposed to an ABA experimental design involving; (A) the monetary incentive system without performance feedback, (B) the incentive system with performance feedback, and (A) return to the incentive system without performance feedback. The introduction of feedback resulted in small to moderate performance improvements in two of the four subjects. Possible reasons for the small and inconsistent effects were explored with special attention paid to the functional role of feedback and monetary incentives. It was proposed that small amounts of incentive money and performance feedback may not improve productivity in the absence of other stimulus events inherent in real organizational settings, such as the possibility for pay raises, promotions, and/or the threat of being fired. These variables may have function-altering effects on incentive money and performance feedback. Future laboratory simulations might experimentally manipulate these variables to further investigate the efficacy of monetary incentive systems.