Digitized Theses and Dissertations

Permanent URI for this collection

https://hdl.handle.net/1828/20823

Browse

Now showing 1 - 20 of 109

Longitudinal changes in semantic memory performance of older adults
(2000) Hazlitt, Janine Elizabeth; Dixon, Roger A.
Longitudinal changes in semantic memory performance of older adults were examined. Participants, drawn from the Victoria Longitudinal Study, consisted of 81 Young-Old (Mn = 62.89, range= 54 to 67 years) and 43 Old-Old (MT, = 71.28, range= 68 to 82 years) adults tested 5 times at 3-year intervals. Performance was indexed by measures of vocabulary, fact recall, 3 indicators of verbal fluency (opposites, similarities, figures of speech), and 2 indicators of verbal speed (semantic verification, lexical decision). Performance at time 1 was compared to 100 Young adults (Mn= 24.77, range= 19 to 36 years). The 2 older age groups performed similarly; however, age differences were observed between Young adults and older adults on all but opposites and similarities. Longitudinal results indicated modest but significant decline across 5 occasions for all tasks. There were interactions for fact recall, figures of speech, semantic verification, and lexical decision, showing more rapid decline for Old-Old adults.
A dissociation between verbal and pictorial implicit memory in an elderly population
(1988) O'Sullivan, Catherine Deirdre; Masson, Michael E. J.
Current research indicates that, although older people show impaired performance, relative to young people, on standard tasks of explicit memory, i.e. recognition, cued recall and free recall, they perform as well as young people on tasks of implicit memory. In this study, performance of old and young subjects was compared on an explicit free recall task and on two implicit memory tasks; word fragment completion and picture fragment completion. As expected, on the free recall task performance of old subjects was impaired relative to young subjects for pictures and words. In addition, there were no age related decrements in performance on the implicit verbal task. In contrast, on the implicit pictorial task clear age related differences emerged with the older subjects performing more poorly than the young subjects. Further, manipulations of frequency and familiarity had no differential effect on performance for either group on the implicit tasks. In addition, there was a significant correlation for old, but not young, subjects between the picture completion task and a standard visual perceptual task. IMPLICIT MEMORY These findings suggest that, at least some components of implicit memory and specifically pictorial memory, may show an age related decline. The results are discussed in terms of a material specific, component processing approach to memory function.
Age differences in the effect of socially modelled efficacy and attributions on self-efficacy and performance
(1989) McEwan, Jane H.; Hultsch, David F.
This study examined how the cognitive performance of adult women could be influenced by socially modelled efficacy and causal attributions. A 2 X 3 independent groups design was employed, with two age groups and three modelling conditions. Female subjects were exposed to one of three peer models who expressed either efficacy and internal causality of task outcomes, or inefficacy and external causality. The model for the control group made no comments about efficacy or causality. Subjects then completed a logical-reasoning task. Those who experienced the positive model persisted longer on the task than did those in the control group. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that the interaction between the experimental manipulation and subjects' beliefs about their own intellectual efficacy and aging were modestly related to task performance.
Modeling influences on senior citizens
(1978) Lustig, Stephen David; Acker, Loren E.
Modeling influences on senior citizens were investigated in three experiments. Videotaped models were portrayed playing a game of skill in order to assess their effect upon senior citizens playing the same game. The task developed resembled a bowling game, but required the subjects to move back from a centre line before trying to hit the target. The distances that subjects chose in correspondence to where the models moved were the indication of modeling effects. Experiment I compared the effects of a Peer Model with a no model Control. Subjects exposed to the Peer Model moved significantly further from the target than did Control subjects, providing an indication of modeling influences. Experiment II was a systematic replication of Experiment I that was designed to compare influences that result from exposure to various aged models. The models, all male, approximated generational differences (Child, Adult, Peer), and were all portrayed playing the game of skill used in Experiment I. Each of the models moved the same distance from the target, demonstrated identical behaviours in playing the game, and were equally successful in their attempts. Exposure to each of the videotaped models significantly increased the distances from the target that senior citizens moved compared with the Control Group subjects. The similarity between the means obtained in Experiments I and II for both the Peer Model and Control Groups suggested that these data were reliable and, together with the influence of other aged models, extended the generality of modeling influences obtained in Experiment I. Subjects were fairly accurate in estimating the ages "of the models observed, suggesting that they were discriminating that aspect of the independent variable in which the experimenter was interested. Child Model subjects tended to move furthest from the target, yet reported less influence compared to subjects in other modeling conditions. Verbal ratings of influence appeared to bear little relationship to the behavioural influence demonstrated. In Experiment III, senior citizens were asked to complete a questionnaire after viewing one of the videotapes (Child, Adult, or Peer), but did not try the task depicted. Experiment III sought to evaluate some of the attitudes that senior citizens would have toward aspects of the videotaped models presented in Experiments I and II. Subjects' ratings yielded no significant differences among models with respect to which one the subjects might feel best able to compete against. Each model was judged to be equally competent at the task, while generalized perceptions of competency for each age group led to adults being rated as most competent. The task itself was seen as being significantly more like an adult's game than a child's. The subjects' predictions of how far back they would move as a result of exposure to each videotaped model produced considerably more similarity between conditions than actually arose when subjects (in Experiment II) behaviourally demonstrated the influence of models. Speculations of the subjects regarding the findings of Experiment II appeared to produce some consensus. The influence of the Child Model was accounted for in terms of "if he can do it, so can I ", while the denial of his influence was justified by demeaning his ability ("he's too inexperienced").
Lexical ambiguity across the adult lifespan
(1987) Norton, Janice Marie; May, Richard B.
Age differences in ambiguity detection were examined in the current study. Thirty (each) young (20-35), middle-aged (40-55), and older (60-73) adults were assessed on their ability to detect lexically ambiguous sentences that were presented in isolation (Experiment 1) or preceded by a contextual paragraph (Experiment 2). In Experiment 1 the bias inherent in the ambiguous sentences was determined for each age group. Based on this information, sentences for Experiment 2 were selected and contextual paragraphs were designed. Paragraphs were congruent with either the dominant or subordinate meaning of the sentence. For one half of the context/sentence pairs, the relationship between the context and the ambiguous sentence was explicit, for the remaining context/sentence pairs, it was implicit. Fewer ambiguities were detected when the context was congruent with the dominant than subordinate interpretation of the sentence. Similarly, fewer ambiguities were detected when the context/ambiguity relationship was implicit than when it was explicit. A context by implicitness interaction indicated than the effects of context were only manifest in the implicit condition. Detection latencies were longer in the dominant than the subordinate condition, and in the implicit versus the explicit condition. Whereas there were no age differences in accuracy or latency of detecting isolated sentences, there were age differences in latencies for ambiguities preceded by context. Older subjects were slower to detect ambiguities than were young and middle-aged subjects, particularly in the implicit condition. The pattern of latencies varied by age. For young subjects, a dominant context led to the longest latencies and subordinate to the shortest latencies. Middle-aged subjects were relatively unaffected by context, and older subjects detected isolated ambiguities most rapidly. Of the cognitive (verbal & perceptual) and demographic variables (age, sex, & education) assessed, crystallized ability best predicted both accuracy and latency of detection. It was hypothesized that age differences did not occur when sentences were presented in isolation because access of multiple meanings is an automatic process unaffected by age. Age differences did occur when multiple meanings had to be held in working memory while inferences were drawn from contextual information.
Age differences in the effects of informative feedback on continuous recognition learning
(1979) de Bosch Kemper, William Peter; Spellacy, Frank Jared
Developmental psychology long established that some adolescents are at greater risk for negative developmental outcomes such as psychopathology and/or problem behaviors. The largely quantitative body of research identified risk and protective factors which may moderate and/or mediate adolescent development. The characteristics and nature of adolescent relationships may increase risk or protection based in part, on the perceptions the adolescent holds towards these relationships. This study was a qualitative exploration of six resilient adolescent females' relationships. Open interview technique was used to explore the participants' perceptions and possible attributed meaning to self, parental, peer, romantic, school and community relationships. Thematic analysis revealed themes related to self and parental relationships were most meaningful. Results are discussed as they related to the participant's development especially areas such as self-awareness, identity development, moral development and stress/coping. Parental themes centered on parenting style, attachment and reciprocal socialization. Implications and suggestions for future research are offered.
Media entertainment and adolescent boys' attitudes about aggression: an exploratory study
(2001) Novozhylova, Olga; Harvey, Brian
Violence is one of the major worldwide concerns today in all segments of society. Antisocial behavior in humans is known to be related to a number of physiological, psychological, familial, and cultural factors. The learning conditions to which a child is exposed are also believed to contribute to the development of aggressive behavior and attitudes. One specific learning condition, media violence, is considered to be a potential contributor to the development of antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. Numerous studies have been conducted in the field of media violence and its effects on the young viewers. A major focus has been the relationship between media violence and aggressive behavior, but, interestingly, research regarding the relationship between media violence and attitudes about aggression is sparse. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to contribute to the state of the research by predicting and comparing attitudes about aggression among adolescent boys on the basis of their exposure to violence in both movies and video/computer games The study employed a survey research design. Two hundred and three adolescent boys aged 13-16 were selected from two public schools on Vancouver Island. The data were collected using four instruments: the Demographic Questionnaire, the Media Entertainment Questionnaire, the Attitudes and Beliefs Regarding Aggression Scale (Vernberg, Jacobs, & Herschberger, 1999), and the Perception of Movie Reality Scale (based on Greenberg, Linsangan, & Soderman, 1994). The results indicated that adolescent boys spend a significant amount of time both watching movies and playing video/computer games. In addition, they are exposed to substantial amounts of media violence. At the same time, parental involvement with their adolescents' movie-viewing and game-playing habits is relatively limited. Further results showed that heavy and light viewers of movie violence did not differ on a statistically significant level in any dimension of their attitudes about aggression. Real and fiction perceivers, as well, did not differ in their attitudes. Adolescents with "violent" game repertoires, however, were significantly more supportive of the attitude that aggression is legitimate and warranted, as compared to those whose repertoires contained little or no violence. Additional results demonstrated that the "aggression-legitimate" attitude was significantly related to a set of predictor variables. The strongest predictors of this attitude in adolescent boys were parental involvement with their adolescents ' movie-viewing, game-playing habits, and the adolescents ' game repertoires. The results obtained in this study are discussed in terms of implications for both violence-prevention programs and media-awareness classes. Suggestions for future research are also offered.
Young children and life stress: patterns in play tactics and perceived competence
(2000) McLeod, Lori J.; Dyson, Lily Li-Chu
This exploratory study examined the effects of stress and resilience on young children by using observations and interviews to compare the play tactics and perceived competence of 3 8 four and five year old children according to the stress levels of their families. After determining the number of stressful life events and circumstances experienced, children were categorized into low stress (three or fewer life stressors) and high stress (four or more life stressors) groups. They were then categorized into one of four groups based on adjustment ratings completed by parents and teachers: low stress, stress-resilient children (LS-SR); low stress, stress-affected children (LS-SA); high stress, stress-resilient children (HS-SR); and high stress, stress-affected children (HS-SA). All of the children engaged in episodes of social exchange with peers more than any other type of play. Episodes of social pretend play found in the observations were then examined for specific tactics used to enter, initiate, sustain, and end the play. Three quarters of the high stress children engaged in social pretend play as compared to only half of the low stress children. All of the groups used both indirect and direct entry tactics and had relatively positive responses from peers. Most of the children just started to play, a social pretend play initiation tactic found frequently in the play of 3 to 5 year old children. The social pretend play dialogues of the HS-SR children were the longest and their dialogues had the highest rate of shared personal experiences. The majority of the social pretend play episode themes involved fantasy play. There were no detectable patterns in the termination tactics used by the children to end their social pretend play episodes. The children were interviewed about their attitudes towards play and the tactics they use while playing. The majority of children had a positive attitude towards play. The low stress children chose home most frequently as their preferred play site as compared to the high stress children, who chose school most frequently. Thirty eight percent of the HS-SA children responded that they liked to play alone all the time. Interestingly, none of the other children in the study chose playing alone all the time as a preference. When asked about the strategies they would use in a play dilemma, children from each of the groups had suggestions that were considered negative. Lastly, the self-perceptions of the participating children were assessed and there were no significant differences found between the scores of the low and high stress groups and no significant differences found between the scores of the LS-SR, LS-SA, HS-SR, and HS-SA groups. Although the social pretend play tactics of the low stress, stress-resilient children and the high stress, stress-resilient children were more developed in this study, the limited sample sizes and the limited data collection period illustrate the need to interpret these results cautiously. Additionally, data trends that were both consistent (e.g., stress-resilient children having more developed play tactics) and inconsistent (e.g., no differences in the perceived competence of low and high stress children) with other research show the need for further, more detailed research in the area of play and more notably, self-perceptions. Given the potentially damaging effects of stress (Honig, 1986) and the positive findings of resilience research (Bloom, 1996; Werner, 1990), further studies are needed to explore more comprehensively whether or not there is a correlation between the levels of stress and the resilient behaviours of young children.
Coping with stressful medical situations: assessing children's strategies
(1992) Costello, Louise Michele; Bavelas, Janet Beavin; Duncan, Pam
Research on how children cope in medical settings has been hampered by the lack of a validated measure of strategy use which is sensitive t o coping as a process, as well as to personal appraisal of the coping situation. In the course of this research, such a measure was developed. The new instrument is a card sort task where possible strategies are depicted in simple captioned drawings, and children are asked for their appraisals of the situation in terms of fear, pain, and control expectations. The psychometric properties of the Coping Strategies Card Sort (CSCS) were examined in a school-based study involving 139 primary aged children, and a subsequent hospital study involving 10 children. The six subscales of the CSCS were shown to have adequate internal consistency, test-retest, and parallel forms reliabilities. Interesting patterns of relationship emerged among some of the subscales of the CSCS, as well as the Situational Appraisal Index, and measures of anxiety, health locus of control, and social desirability. Parental descriptions of children's strategy use did not match the children's own descriptions. In the hospital setting, the children's predictions and post- hoc descriptions of strategy use matched observed behaviours moderately well to very well for most of the participants.
Understanding the essence of the relationship between Big and Little Brothers and Sisters: phenomenological study
(1997) Thompson, Marney Rochelle; Ricks, Frances
This study focuses on relationships between Big and Little Brothers and Sisters, within the Big Brothers and Sisters program. The essence of these relationships is discovered through phenomenological inquiry. Drawing from the literature in child and youth care, education, mentoring and on the Big Brothers and Sisters program, a framework was designed to guide this inquiry. Through in-person, individual interviews with Big and Little Brothers and Sisters, this study explored the formation and meaning of relationships developed between children and non-family adults. The five universal themes discussed are: Turning a Match into Our Friendship, Actively Being and Becoming, Mutual Ownership, Acceptance and Relatedness, and Personal Benefit. Illuminating the essence of relationships between children and non-family adults, the findings of this study point out the personal and dynamic factors which make these relationships meaningful. The final chapter explains the significance and implications of this study and suggests avenues for further research in this area.
A test of Weiner's attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion in a youth sport achievement setting
(1988) Robinson, David W. (David William); Howe, Bruce L.
This study assessed the applicability of Weiner's (1985) attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion to the youth sport achievement setting. After participating in a six-week competitive team sport program, 351 male and 395 female grade 8 and 9 students completed a questionnaire which employed Likert-type scales to assess their (a) perceived personal performance appraisal, (b) attributional appraisals for personal performance, (c} general (GA), self-related (SRA), and other-related (ORA) affective reactions, and (d) EXPECTANCY for future achievement. Multivariate analyses revealed the following: 1. both perceived success and perceived failure were affectively involving, with perceived success being associated with (a) greater internality, stability, and controllability of attributions, (b) more positive GA, SRA, and ORA, and (c) greater EXPECTANCY, 2. perceived performance played a more important role in the affect and expectancy processes than did attributional appraisal, 3. the causal dimensions had roles of differing importance in each of the perceived success and perceived failure conditions, 4. congruent with the linkages proposed by Weiner, it was shown that (a) perceived performance had the greatest predictive power for GA, (b) internal and stable attributions were linked with positive SRA in success outcomes, and uncontrollable attributions were linked with negative SRA in failure outcomes, (c) internal attributions were linked with positive ORA in success outcomes, and external attributions were linked with negative ORA in failure outcomes, and (d) stable and internal attributions were linked with high EXPECTANCY in success outcomes, and unstable and uncontrollable attributions were linked with low EXPECTANCY in failure outcomes, 5. contrary to Weiner's model it was shown that, (a) perceived performance was linked not only with GA, but with SRA, and ORA, and EXPECTANCY also, and (b) attributional appraisals may not always be involved in the affect or expectancy processes, but when operative they may influence each of the affect types and EXPECTANCY, and 6. males and females had similar appraisal variable-affect relationship patterns, but dissimilar appraisal variable-EXPECTANCY relationship patterns. It was concluded that, although Weiner's model provides a useful theoretical framework for research, the need exists for a sport specific model of the antecedents of affect and expectancy.
An Investigation of prospective memory in children
(1998) Wilde, Nancy Jean; Kerns, Kimberly A.
Prospective memory performance was investigated in 66 children between the ages of 6 and 12. A developmental progression was found for both time-based and event-based prospective memory. In addition, a difference in performance was found, with the time-based prospective memory task being more difficult than the event-based task. Large order effects were observed on the prospective memory tasks, leading to difficulties in interpretation, and a reduction in sample size. However, the relationship of time-based prospective memory and working memory approached significance. Event-based prospective memory performance was related to performance on a direct retrospective memory task. An implicit memory task was not related to any of the other experimental measures. The relationship of these findings to the existing literature is examined. The problems with the selected tasks are discussed, and suggestions for future studies are proposed.
Facilitation of interpeer affection in young children: the use of a story reading and stimulus fading procedure
(1986) Altman, Irwin Morris; Acker, Loren E.
Interpeer physical affectionate and verbal appreciative responses were directly manipulated in day care children. A Pretreatment Baseline was carried out to measure any '' natural" or pre- existing occurrences of those physical and verbal responses. Next, the treatment--a story reading procedure that included modelling, role playing, stimulus fading, and praise- -was employed and it was successful in facilitating interpeer physical affection and verbal appreciation in the treatment setting. However, when posttreatment measures were compared to those in the Pretreatment Baseline, only the verbal appreciation response showed an increase in frequency. This reluctance of the children to perform interpeer physical affectionate responses was further underscored when a toy dog was made the object of the affection in the Posttreatment Baseline context. Although the children had not received any previous training with the dog, they showed an increase in dog-directed physical affection and verbal appreciation. In an effort to maximize the probability of occurrence of interpeer physical affectionate responses in play settings, two additional methods were designed (i.e., Instructional Control Procedure and Dog/Assimilation Procedure). After these methods were employed, the frequency of interpeer physical affection was finally increased from pretreatment levels. Although it is encouraging that interpeer physical affection can be facilitated, the effort required to achieve this goal was great. The latter is especially true in light of the aggression research which demonstrates that physical aggression is easily facilitated. Observational research of children in natural settings and the reactions of the parents, caregivers, and peers to the children's performance of inter peer affectionate responses is needed. This research could elucidate the dynamics which underlie the possible differences in the children's willingness to engage in aggressive as opposed to affectionate behaviours. Finally, future research must ascertain the sources for the children's reluctance to engage in interpeer physical affectionate behaviours if social learning strategies for the development of affectionate and gentle behaviour s in our children are to be realized.
Patterns of generalization between imitative affection and aggression in young children
(1980) Surkes, Jean Kathleen; Acker, Loren E.
This study was designed to explore patterns of generalization between imitative affection and aggression, between verbal and motoric forms of expressing affection and aggression, and to compare the rates of acquisition and extinction for verbal and motoric imitative affection and aggression among young children. Four groups of seven year old boys and girls were trained (with continuous reinforcement) to imitate one of the following classes of behaviour: physical affection, physical aggression, verbal affection or verbal aggression directed towards a stuffed "Mickey Mouse.'' Following training, probes for generalization to the other three classes of (non-trained) behaviours were introduced. Throughout this generalization phase which closely approximated the typical generalized imitation paradigm, continuous reinforcement of training behaviour imitation was maintained at a ratio of one training behaviour presentation to every one probe presentation. The children were then subjected to a two phase extinction procedure: massed training behaviour extinction trials (zero reinforcement) followed by presentations of all four classes of modelled stimuli with continued non- reinforcement for training behaviour imitation (pseudo-generalization). No significant group by sex interactions, nor main effects for sex were found in any phase of the study. Also, no significant main effects for groups were found in the acquisition of verbal or motoric imitative affection or aggression, nor in the rate of training behaviour imitation throughout the generalization phase. During extinction, however, the group trained in physical aggression showed a higher rate of training behaviour imitation than did any of the other three groups, during both massed training behaviour extinction trials and the subsequent presentation of all four classes of modelled stimuli. The extinction data were subjected to three separate analyses and while the physical aggression group showed a significantly higher rate of imitation than each of the other three groups in at least one of the two analyses based on the massed extinction data, the main effect for groups fell just short of significance in the analysis of the training behaviour data from the pseudo-generalization phase. To facilitate examination of the patterns of generalization, the three probes for each group were redefined as generalization across emotion (EG), generalization across mode (MG), and generalization across both (EMG). In the traditional generalization phase, significant differences in frequency of probe imitations were found between all pairs of probes in the following order: EG>MG>EMG. In the analyses for group differences, the group trained in physical aggression showed significantly less generalization across emotion than did any of the other three groups. No significant differences were found among the groups in frequency of MG or EMG. In the pseudo- generalization phase during extinction, most subjects had ceased imitating any of the probes and thus, there was no longer any difference across the probes in their frequency of imitation. However, the group trained in physical affection showed a higher rate of EG than did any of the other groups, the differences being significant in two of the three between-group comparisons. Again, there were no significant group differences in MG or EMG. The results of this study support previous research showing that within modal generalization occurs more frequently than cross modal generalization even when the latter is between physical and verbal expressions of the same emotion. The results also indicate that the patterns of generalization between affection and aggression are not necessarily reciprocal; i.e., there was a high frequency of generalization from physical affection to physical aggression but relatively little generalization in the reverse direction. And finally, while no differences were observed among the four classes of behaviour during acquisition, physical aggression was found to have the highest rate of imitation during extinction, both as a training behaviour and as a probe.
Cognitive correlates of arithmetic performance in clinic referred children
(1982) Tuokko, Holly A.; Costa, Louis
The purpose of this research was to investigate, from quantitative and qualitative viewpoints, the relationship between cognitive functioning and arithmetic performance. Using multiple correlations, the performance of one hundred and thirty-five clinic-referred children on the Arithmetic subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) was examined in relation to performance on Verbal, Spatial and Memory dimensions (as measured by the WISC). In addition, a subtyping procedure was used to examine whether the pattern of Arithmetic performance was related to pattern of cognitive abilities. A replication of the preceeding was undertaken on a sample of three hundred and fifteen school-referred children. The qualitative approach involved analysis of errors made on arithmetic-related tasks by eighteen learning disabled children. The results indicated that the Verbal and/or Memory dimensions consistently contributed to arithmetic performance although the relative contributions of each varied by sex, age and across samples. Qualitative analysis of the performance of children with severely impaired Verbal and Memory abilities was characterized by errors reflecting impaired recollection of basic facts and faulty acquisition of certain mathematical concepts. Contrary to expectations, the Spatial dimension only contributed to the Wechsler Arithmetic subtest for the second sample. Pattern of cognitive ability had no relationship to the pattern of Arithmetic performance but level of Verbal and Memory abilities differed in relation to pattern of Arithmetic performance. It was suggested that Spatial ability is necessary to acquire an appreciation of numeration and serves as a basis for the development of mathematical ability but beyond this basis, the degree to which an individual acquires the ability to abstract plays a role in arithmetic performance. Implications and suggestions for future research are briefly presented.
Nonreinforced imitation in children: effects of prior reinforcement histories
(1974) Oliver, Peter Roger; Acker, Loren E.
In three experiments, the effects of prior reinforcement for complying or not complying with adult instructions were assessed with respect to the amount of nonreinforced imitation which occurred in a subsequent modelling situation. Kindergarten children were first reinforced for following or not following a series of instructions in a nonimitative setting. The occurrence of nonreinforced imitation was subsequently assessed in a dual-model paradigm in which one experimenter (SD model) modelled behaviours and rewarded the child for imitating while a second experimenter (S-delta model) modelled both similar and dissimilar behaviours but never reinforced the child for imitating. In all cases, the S-delta model was the same experimenter who had previously reinforced the children for compliance or noncompliance. The prediction was tested that children who had previously been rein forced for following adult instructions (Compliance Group) would show larger amounts of nonreinforced imitation than children who had no prior experience with the S- delta model (Control Group). Also tested was the prediction that children who had previously been reinforced for not following adult instructions (Noncompliance Group) would show lesser occurrences of nonreinforced imitation than children in the control group. In Exp. I, one group of children were reinforced for complying with adult instructions prior to the modelling situation while a control group received no prior experience with the S-delta model. As predicted, the amount of nonreinforced imitation was higher following compliance training than in the control group. Control Ss in Exp. I were not given any prior experience with the S-delta model as had the children in the compliance group. Consequently, the increased amount of nonreinforced imitation following compliance training could have been due to prior experience with a rewarding model per se. To preclude this possibility, Exp. II directly replicated the procedures of Exp. I with the addition of a third condition in which a separate group of children were first reinforced for not complying with the same instructions given to the compliance group. Since children in this noncompliance group received approximately the same amount of reinforcement as children in the compliance group, it served as a control for the effects of prior rewarding experiences per seas well as a test of whether nonreinforced imitation could be decreased following noncompliance training. Exp. II successfully replicated the results of Exp. I. Children previously reinforced for following instructions displayed significantly more nonreinforced imitation than both control Ss and children given the same amount of rewarding experience with the S-delta model but for noncompliant behaviour. Children in the noncompliance group imitated fewer behaviours without reinforcement than control Ss but this difference was not statistically significant. Lack of a significant decrease appeared to be associated with sex differences with boys requiring additional training procedures than those used with girls in order to establish noncompliant behaviour. These differences in training noncompliance could have affected nonreinforced imitation for boys to a greater extent than for girls. Exp. III replicated the procedures of Exp. II while strengthening and standardizing noncompliance training for both boys and girls. Exp. III also varied the sex of the S-del ta model so that an equal number of boys and girls were exposed to both male and female models. Prior reinforcement for compliance again increased the occurrence of nonreinforced imitation, successfully replicating the results of Exps. I and II. Noncompliance training also resulted in a significant decrease in nonreinforced imitation compared to both compliance and control groups. These effects were independent of the sex of the child and/or the sex of the S-delta model.
The development of a classification scheme of help-intended responses of adolescent peers, grades 7, 9, and 11
(1986) McDowell, Christina Anne; Carr, Rey
The purposes of this research were to document adolescent help intended responses, to develop a classification scheme of these responses, and to examine peer help- intended responses for similarities and differences across grades 7, 9, and 11. Help-int ended responses were examined in simulated peer interactions using the following qualitative measures: Help Intended Response Form; Tape Assisted Recall; and In-Depth Interviews. Subjects (n=92) listened to audiotaped peer problem statements and wrote responses to help the peer. Verbatim descript ions of peer help- intended responses were also obtained from a random sample of subjects (n= 12) in a semi-structured interview. Content analysis identified the following seven main categories of peer help-intended responses: Acknowledging; Offering the Self; Giving Perspective; Encouraging; Demonstrating Understanding; Information Seeking; and Guiding Strategies. In addition, twenty-three subcategories were documented. The following help- intended responses were the most frequent at each grade level: Acknowledging (grade seven); Guiding Strategies (grade nine); and Encouraging (grade eleven). These findings confirm that adolescents do engage in reciprocal peer helping relationships and do use a broad repertoire of action oriented peer help-int ended responses. Implications for peer training programs and future research are discussed.
The cognitive-behavioral management of test anxiety
(1976) d'Estrubé, Shirley W.; Carr, Rey
This review of recently published studies concerned with concepts, assessment, and treatments of test anxiety, traces the influence of the current trend toward self-management on behavioral counselling for test anxiety. The principal measures for assessment, the Test Anxiety Scale, the Achievement Anxiety Test, and the Emotionality-Worry Scale, are reviewed in terms of their analysis of the problem and their implications for treatment. A number of current treatment methods employing systematic desensitization and modified behavioral techniques, such as cue-controlled relaxation, relaxation-self-control, coping models, and covert cues, are described and compared, as are also such cognitive strategies as rational-emotive therapy, self-instruction techniques, and "coping self-statements". Outcome studies bringing together cognitive and behavioral components in a single program aimed at both the emotionality and the worry aspects of test anxiety are presented, with special attention given to Meichenbaum's cognitive-behavioral treatment paradigm. The central focus of this review is the question of which treatment paradigm is the most efficient, effective, and appropriate for use by counsellors working among school and university populations. To this end, comparisons are explored, research needs indicated, and implications for the schools suggested. Specific illustrations of treatment methods are included in the appendices for the purpose of providing practical information to counsellors in the field.
Film provoked aggression in children: effects of prior affection training
(1979) Marton, John P.; Acker, Loren E.
This research investigated the effects of prior affection training on subsequent television provoked aggression. The research manipulated the nature of children's training with the object (a stuffed Mickey Mouse toy) toward which aggression was later modelled via television. Four and five year old children attending day care centres in Victoria, B.C. participated. Affection training consisted of the experimenter modelling a sequence of care taking acts directed at "Mickey''; feeding, cleaning, resting, etc. The experimenter modelled each act in a manner emphasizing gentle, affectionate components (encapsulating Mickey close to body with large surface area of contact, drawing Mickey close to face, incorporating slow and gentle movement, and interspersing stroking and rocking motions). The experimenter instructed and prompted imitation of each act by the child and provided physical and verbal guidance, as required, to ensure that affectionate components were present in the child's behaviour. Satisfactory imitations were verbally consequated. Teacher training was a control training procedure consisting of modelling, prompting, and guiding a parallel sequence of caretaking acts. However, this procedure emphasized teaching components of behaviours and was devoid of overt physical affection. Affection and teacher training procedures were matched with respect to time spent with the experimenter, verbal consequences received from the experimenter, number of behaviours trained, etc. Another control group received no training. Televised aggression, shown to each of these children, depicted a sequence of caretaking acts similar to those in the training phase. However, these acts were modelled in a harsh, rough, aggressive manner. Subsequent effects on behaviour were assessed in two setting conditions. In the prompted play setting (immediately following the televised aggression), the experimenter prompted the child to engage in each of the eight previously modelled caretaking acts (without specifying the manner in which the act was to be performed). Children were observed with respect to the character of their caretaking as regards the occurrence of directly imitative aggression (aggressive behaviours matching those televised) and generalized aggression (other aggressive behaviours). In the following free play setting, the children played with Mickey without specific prompts and occurrences of the two forms of aggression were again scored. Interobserver agreement was over 90% for directly imitative aggression and over 70% for generalized aggression. Data on the occurrences of affectionate and teaching imitations were also obtained through out. Additional experimental conditions consisted of teacher training followed by nonaggressive television (as a control to determine the effects of the televised aggression in terms of provoking aggression) and affection training followed by aggressive modelling directly followed by free play (to determine the role of presence/absence of prompted play in contributing to free play effects). The hypothesis tested was that affection training would buffer the occurrence of television provoked aggression. The results indicate that during prompted play only directly imitative aggression was provoked by the aggressive videotape. No significant differences in occurrences of directly imitative aggression were obtained between affection trained and teacher trained children. During free play both directly imitative and generalized aggression were provoked. During free play there were significantly fewer occurrences of aggression in affection trained children than in teacher trained children, by both the multi variate test for the two forms of aggression and by the univariate test for generalized aggression. The results are discussed in terms of the social demand characteristics of the two play settings, procedural issues, and presumed histories for affectionate and aggressive behaviours.
Some determinants of affectionate behavior in young children
(1976) Pirot, Michael; Acker, Loren E.
This research is concerned with the determinants of affectionate behavior in young children, and is focused upon the uncovering of the means by which to increase positive social behavior (e.g. modelling of prosocial behavior), rather than being concerned with negative social behavior and the means by which to decelerate it (e.g. punishment and extinction with their potentially unfortunate social consequences). In two experiments, the determinants of affectionate behavior in young children were explored. Experiment I was the study of the effects of modelling and instruction upon imitative, concurrent, and free-play affectionate behavior of young children towards a toy object (teddy bear). The experiment consisted of two phases: a modelled caretaking or an instructed caretaking training phase followed by a free-play phase during which generalization data were taken. Three groups were set in Experiment I: a) an Imitative Caretaking group in which caretaking behavior was modelled, with assessment of imitative caretaking and concurrent affectionate behavior; b) an Instructed Caretaking group in which instructions to caretake were given, with assessment of instructed caretaking and concurrent affectionate behavior; and c) a Control group, which received no training. All three groups were assessed as regards free-play affectionate behavior and aggressive behavior in a single phase free- play period. The results of Experiment I demonstrated t hat the Imitative Care taking group produced a mean imitation rate of 69% during training and t hat this training produced significantly more free-play affectionate behavior than did t he Instructed Caretaking and Control groups. The - ii Imitative Caretaking group also produced significantly more concurrent affectionate behavior than the Instructed Caretaking group. The Instructed Caretaking group did not produce significantly more free-play affectionate behavior than the Control group. There was some evidence that physical contact and imitative caretaking may have been the effective variables producing the free-play affectionate behavior of the Imitative Caretaking group. Consequently these factors were systematically varied in Experiment II in order that their effects upon free-play affectionate behavior could be assessed. Experiment II was conducted to explore the effects of imitative caretaking, non-imitative caretaking, and imitative neutral physical contact upon free-play affectionate and concurrent affectionate behavior. The experiment consisted of two phases: a training phase followed by a free-play phase (consisting of two periods) during which generalization data were taken. Three groups were set in Experiment II: a) an Imitative Caretaking group (replicate of a group of the same name in Experiment I); b) a Non-Imitative Caretaking group (modelled caretaking kept constant, but physical contact obviated); and c) an Imitative Neutral Physical Contact group (physical contact kept constant, but the caretaking context obviated). The results of Experiment II demonstrated that (imitative) caretaking and physical contact produced in imitation in the Imitative Caretaking group interacted as variables in such a manner to produce significantly more free-play affectionate behavior relative to the Non-Imitative Care taking and Imitative Neutral Physical Contact groups. The increased free-play and concurrent affectionate behavior demonstrated by the Imitative Caretaking group of Experiment I was replicated by a similar group in Experiment II. These results suggest that these phenomena are reliable. The magnitude of treatment effect for the Groups factor was significantly increased by Experiment II as compared to Experiment I and thus increased the percentage of variance accounted for. Also the variability of the Imitative Caretaking group of Experiment II was significantly decreased for the girls, but not for the boys. This suggests that greater experimental control was accomplished by requiring that the children in imitation groups in Experiment II produce 100% criterion imitation (which was not demanded in Experiment I where the imitation rate was free to vary, producing 69% for the Imitative Care taking group). Experiments I and II showed nearly nil amounts of aggressive behavior during training and free-play, and as such, conclusions about this rate are tenuous. Sex was not a significant factor in almost every analysis of both experiments, suggesting that for three- to five-year-old children these treatment effects are not sex-dependent. The generalization data of both experiments were taken in a cue-minimal/model-absent context, and as such provided a stringent test of the ability of the treatments to generalize to the free-play period. The Imitative Caretaking group produced generalization effects, suggesting that the effects of this treatment may generalize across a variety of stimulus situations. Consequently the techniques created by these experiments may provide teachers and parents a reliable means by which - iv to increase positive social behavior.

Browse

Recent Submissions