Digitized Theses and Dissertations

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Perceptions of counsellor genuineness, empathy, and regard: impact of counsellor nonverbal behavior and subject self-esteem
(1986) Duma, Joanne; Uhlemann, Max R.
A review of the research literature illustrates the influential roles of both nonverbal behavior and self-esteem in the process of interpersonal perception. Studies investigating the salient factors in creating facilitative conditions in counsel ling have found counsellor nonverbal behavior to influence client perceptions of the counsellor. Additionally, research studies on self-esteem have found one's self-esteem level to have a considerable impact on his or her perceptions of another in an interpersonal interaction. The current study investigate the influential role of counsellor nonverbal behavior (eye contact, trunk lean, body orientation, facial expressiveness, head nodding) on client perceptions of counsellor genuineness, empathy, and regard. Counsellor nonverbal behavior was examined both alone and in interaction with subject self-esteem. Subjects viewed two eight -minute videotaped counselling interviews in which the verbal script remained constant while the counsellor nonverbal behavior differed in level of responsiveness (responsive vs. unresponsive). Subjects evaluated counsellor genuineness, empathy, and regard on the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory (1962). The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (Fitts, 1964) was administered to determine the subjects' self-esteem level. It was predicted that the videotaped counsellor emitting responsive and unresponsive nonverbal behavior would receive high and low ratings of genuineness, empathy, and regard, respectively. Additionally, it was expected that, in both of the nonverbal behavior conditions, the counsellor would receive significantly high or lower ratings in the predicted directions from the low self-esteem subjects. A multivariate analysis of variance revealed that responsive counsellor nonverbal behavior was associated with higher ratings of counsellor genuineness, empathy, and regard. Self-esteem level, however, failed to interact with counsellor nonverbal behavior to differentially affect counsellor evaluation. The results were discussed and the limitations of the current study, implications of the findings, and suggestions for future research were presented.
Effects of self-examination upon appraisal-seeking of lay counsellors
(1978) Drader, Victoria Frances; Knowles, Don
In situations where workers have limited training and experience, every opportunity for improvement of performance should be utilized. Despite this need, threat aroused by receiving information about ourselves often leads us to resist input. In order to increase the use of appraisal situations, a means of lowering the threat of the evaluative situation was sought for crisis line counsellors. A process seemingly effective in reducing threat, yet influential in improving task achievement, was identified from field observations and theoretical and research writings. The process identified was a private and structured self examination of the most recent performance. Lay counsellors received structured, unstructured or no guidelines about examining their performance on calls at a crisis line. The effects measured were (a) voluntary self-examination, (b) differences in self and supervisory evaluation of performance level, and (c) invitations to supervisors or partners to comment upon a particular performance. Results did not support the hypotheses. A tentative conclusion was made from post hoc data that at times a negative relationship existed between self- examination, whether imposed or voluntary, and some appraisal seeking behaviors. Possible explanations for the lack of support for the hypotheses were offered as well as suggestions for further research.
Care and justice: an analysis of the ethical decisions of counsellors
(1994) Dempsey, Susan D.; Peavy, R. Vance
The purpose of this study was to examine and understand, through semi-structured interviews, the experience of counsellors facing difficult ethical decisions in their work. Four professional counsellors (two male, two female) were interviewed and their stories of ethical conflict were interpreted using "A Guide to Reading Narratives of Conflict and Choice for Self and Moral Voice" (Brown et. al, 1988), which is based on the theory developed by Gilligan ( 1977), that provides the two perspectives of justice and care as a framework for understanding moral reasoning. These two perspectives refer to modes of thinking that focus on rules, principles and abstract thinking (justice); and connection, interdependence and contextual thinking (care). Although much of the research to this time has attempted to discover whether men and women each primarily adopt justice and care perspectives respectively, this study has not shown that to be true. I discovered both perspectives to be indicated in the stories of ethical conflict, with individual variations on focus, importance, and interplay of the two. Some primary themes that were revealed by these interviews included struggling between justice (honouring the rights of individuals) and care (making sure specific people are safe), balancing care for others with care of self, and attempting to adhere to bottom line rules when the situation may require different actions. Most dilemmas were 'solved' at the time, with the conflict arising in reaction to feelings about actions or outcome, or on reflection at a later date. This research has revealed a framework within which ethics could be taught to counselling students, and offered to professional counsellors as a component of professional development, in order to enhance the general quality of counsellors' decisions within the field. Writings from feminist scholars in the field of counselling and moral philosophy have added greatly to the understanding of the roles of care and justice in ethical decision making, and of innovative ways in which to advance the awareness of ethics in the counselling field. Future studies are required to address the experience of individuals who come from other cultures.
Distinguishing among models of nonverbal exchange: social cognition, arousal-labeling, and discrepancy-arousal
(1987) O'Connor, Brian; Gifford, Robert
Research has found that individuals will respond to an increase in nonverbal immediacy by either increasing or decreasing the immediacy of their own nonverbal behavior. As a result, a number of models have been put forward to account for these different responses. One approach (e. g., Anderson, 1985; Burgoon, 1983; Patterson, 1976) employs Schachter and Singer's (1962) arousal-labeling process as the mediating mechanism. A second approach, the discrepancy- arousal model (Capella & Greene, 1982), hypothesizes that the amount of arousal resulting from violated expectations determines the individual's behavioral response. A third approach (e.g., Ellsworth, 1978) suggests that simple social cognition may be the important mediating process instead of arousal- based mechanisms. An experiment was designed that would: 1) test the social cognition model; and 2) serve as a crucial test among the models. Individual male subjects discussed a moral dilemma with a male confederate at a seating distance of either 3 . 5 feet (control group) or 10 inches (two experimental groups). In an Intentional- Close experimental condition, the confederate was responsible for the close distance: he picked up a chair and moved it close. In a Forced-Close condition the confederate was forced to sit close due to the arrangement of the room and to instructions from the experimenter. Subjects in both of these close distance conditions displayed nonverbal compensation (compared to subjects in the control group). However, only those subjects in the Intentional-Close condition evaluated the confederate more negatively (compared to subjects in the control group). The confederate evaluation results indicate that social information processing determines whether the individual's reaction to an increase in immediacy will be positive or negative. Combined with the results of past research, this finding suggests that social cognition alone determines whether nonverbal compensation or nonverbal reciprocation will occur. Furthermore, the arousal- labeling and discrepancy-arousal models are seriously questioned by the present findings.
Values and commitment: an empirical verification of Hodgkinson's value paradigm as applied to the commitment of individuals to organizations
(1986) Lang, Donald L.; Hodgkinson, Christopher
This dissertation has a dual purpose: empirical verification of the Hodgkinson value paradigm and an investigation of this typology in the commitment of individuals to organizations. Hodgkinson's hierarchical model postulates three logically distinct categories of value based behaviour: transrational, rational, subrational. Transrational (Type I) is faith/will based. Rational is logic based (Type IIA) and consensual based (Type IIB). Subrational (Type III) is pleasure based. Four hypotheses were developed and tested using qualitative methods. Primary data are interviews with eight individuals, two from each of four organizations, identified by senior officials (gatekeepers) as being highly committed to their respective organizations. Selection of organizations was based on data from eight experts in organizational behaviour who gave unanimous/majority judgments in classifying 36 organizations in the context of the value paradigm. Five judges evaluated interview protocols from the same perspective and achieved a 65% hit rate with data from experts. Other sample groups (teachers, nurses, secretaries, university students) similarly evaluated statements of organization ideology and organization purpose, as generated by gatekeepers from the four organizations. Data support hypotheses that ideology of organizations and individuals' commitment to organizations can be classified according to Hodgkinson's value typology (major hypotheses); that organization ideology is a function of organization purpose and that individuals' commitment to organizations is a congruent function of organization ideology (minor hypotheses). Results imply commitment to organizations is fundamentally value based but complex: when more than one value system is involved, the dominant influence is consistent with the hierarchical order of the paradigm. There was no evidence of reverse order effect. Qualitative methods appear necessary to discern this complex structure. Of particular significance to administrators is that as type of value commitment is commensurate with values of organization, the inculcation of commitment must proceed from socialization processes reflecting those values. This is fundamental praxis: the integration of values with the discharge of administrative behaviour.
Towards understanding the human condition(s) of alone/not alone
(1999) Koleba, Jane Marie; Oberg, Antoinette A.
The difference between being alone and not alone is a matter of perception. To achieve a state of being not alone a person must overcome the stigma and fears attached to ideas of aloneness. Much of the ability to do so lies in that person's connections to their internal other(s), what could be described as a sense of self. These are the conclusion of a study of my own and others' experiences. This study was conducted autobiographically, although I did not start out to do an autobiographical study. I started out trying to make sense of responses to questionnaires from both high school and university students, and observations of the world and the people around me. I found that the only sense I could make of my topic was my own sense, and so I pursued a critical reflection on my own experiences of alone/not alone. This is a study of lived experience in which the focus is on understanding multiple meanings of alone/not alone. As I looked for meaning and depth of meaning within myself, I had to surmount layers of resistance, such as previous training to be an objective observer rather than part of the study, and a resistance from within myself as I looked deeper into my own feelings of alone/not alone. All of this contributed to my understanding of alone/not alone as I slowly, and with some difficulty, brought myself into the study, experiencing various states of alone/not alone as I did so.
A qualitative study of companion animal loss and grief resolution
(1999) Stefan, Faye Marlene; France, Honoré
The purpose of this study was to gain knowledge about the grief resolution process of bereaved pet owners. Most studies on the grieving process have outlined the stages through which the bereaved goes until the final stage of letting go of the attachment to the deceased and reinvesting that energy in new relationships. Studies regarding pet loss bereavement have been focused on the similarities of grief over the loss of a person and grief over the loss of a pet. These studies have been based on the model of grief espoused by the positivist view of stages of grief and the concept of working through to resolution. This study has taken a postpositivist perspective, and looks at bereaved pet owners' journeys through the grief experience and questions whether or not resolution has to mean letting go of the relationship attachment to the deceased. The method employed in this study was a qualitative, heuristic, descriptive model. Interviews were conducted with five childless women who had experienced the loss of a pet one year or more prior to the study. From the transcripts, an individual summary was written for each participant. An analysis was then done of the factors that influenced the grieving process. The results showed that three main factors influenced the grief experience of these participants: the quality of the relationship with the deceased pet, the support network available to the bereaved, and the way the companion animal died. Further exploration of the transcripts revealed the variety of ways the bereaved tried to work with their grief. These were: executing rituals as leave taking, writing of the experience, seeking information and knowledge about the death, regaining routines disrupted by illness and death, new pet acquisition, and sharing the experience with others. The final analysis uncovered what remains with the participants of this death experience: the traumatic quality of the death, the lack of social support, insights into the meaning of life, continued mourning as a way of maintaining attachment, and integration of the deceased pet as a continuing bond. The results indicate that the stages of grief for bereaved pet owners are similar to those outlined by other theorists in regard to grief over the loss of a person, as are the activities the bereaved engages in. The results also suggest, as Klass, Silverman, and Nickman (1996) have said, that the relationship to the deceased does not end; it influences the bereaved, and the bond continues. This is of significance to counsellors when working with individuals who have suffered the loss of a companion animal. This study helps further to identify a population of people that may be at risk of stressful bereavement and the factors that might be helpful in the identification process.
Motivational properties of frustrative nonreward, conflict involving nonreward, and conflict unconfounded with nonreward
(1973) Lange, Donald Edward; Wright, R. L. D.
Similarities of the motivational properties of frustrative nonreward and conflict unconfounded with nonreward were evaluated in two different experiments. The purpose was to determine if conflict, unconfounded with primary aversive elements inherent in nonreward, was capable of eliciting "frustration-like" effects; thus allowing adoption of Brown and Farber's (1951) parsimonious explanation of frustration effects, in terms of conflict operations. The main hypothesis tested was that approach-approach conflict and nonreward following experience with reward (Amsel's frustrative-nonreward) would produce similar increments in the general level of motivation (as measured by an increase in Alley 2 running speed). The general experimental procedures used in Experiments I and II extended traditional frustration methodology to a simultaneous discrimination task, employing as apparatus, a straight double runway maze in which the first goal box is divided into two parallel chambers. Light and dark chambers served as discriminative stimuli occasioning reward, nonreward, or partial reward. Acquisition of discrimination approximated differential conditioning with a guidance procedure of closing the entrance to one side of GB 1 with a Plexiglas door, thus forcing a response to the other side while maintaining simultaneous presentation of the discriminanda of both sides. The methodology provided experimental conditions which subjected different groups of adult male, Long-Evans strain rats to experiences of Conflict with Frustrative-nonreward (FC), Conflict without Frustrative-nonreward (C) , and the equivalent of Frustrative nonreward (F) and Continuous Reward (0) within a simultaneous discrimination task . The designs of Experiments I and II differed in the procedures used to establish stimulus control, equated practice to both GB 1 sides, and sequential placement of experimental trials in relation to training trials. Both experiments equated groups in terms of acquisition trials, amount of reward, and other motivational and associated variables known to affect running speed. In both experiments, the Conflict-only (C) Ss were trained to an S+ discriminandum, and then made to choose between two S+ GB 1 boxes, being rewarded regardless of which one was chosen. Steps were taken to reduce spatial-positional preferences and odor cues. Results of overall mixed-design analyses of Experiment I Alley 2 data did not confirm the main hypothesis. However, differential effects supporting the main hypothesis were found within-Ss for the C, FC, and F groups when rewarded training trials and criterion trials were compared. In addition, within-i frustration effects were found when rewarded and nonrewarded training trials were compared. It was concluded that procedures were not effective in producing differential effects at a magnitude sufficient for between-S comparisons. Moreover, effects of stimulus generalization may have created more complex operations than conceptualized, such that inherent approach-avoidance conflict, may have been created in each group through the experience of nonreward associated with undiscriminated S-. Experiment II tested this assumption and eliminated experience with nonreward by consistently guiding Ss' training trial responses to the correct, S+, discriminandum. Results of overall mixed-design analyses of Experiment II supported the main hypothesis. However, the increment in Alley 2 speed developed with practice, rather than occurring immediately upon the institution of nonreward or conflict. The within-S analyses comparing experimental and control (acquisition) trials added further support for the confirmation of the main hypothesis. Results from post hoc discrimination tests immediately following the two experiments, and an examination of the choice behavior of Ss during the course of experimentation , led to two conclusions: (1) the procedure of consistently guiding an S's response to one stimulus where two stimuli were simultaneously presented was successful in establishing stimulus control; (2) subjects tend to adopt positional habits as a conflict-reducing solution to a situation involving a choice between two relatively equal alternatives, but not all of the effects of conflict were thereby removed . Experiment I provided data suggesting that positional preferences may be learned in such choice situations.
Searching for, finding, and experiencing friendship: a qualitative study of friendship experiences of seven young adults with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome or Fetal Alcohol Effects
(2001) Copeland, Brenda Maureen; Sheilds, Laurene
This qualitative study into the experiences of friendship of five young adults with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and two young adults with fetal alcohol effects (FAE) helps us understand people with FAS or FAE, from their own voices, experiences and perspectives. With some recent exceptions, much of the literature on FAS and FAE can be characterized as pathology oriented, that is, focusing on the deficits and inabilities of people with limited consideration of their perspectives or experiences. A great deal of attention has been given to socialising and behaviour problems of FAS and FAE in human services research, practice, and policy literature. However, people with FAS or FAE have had few opportunities to enter into these discussions. In addition, the experiences of people with FAS or FAE are lacking in our knowledge of friendship. Utilising qualitative secondary analysis of interview data, experiences of friendship of seven young adults with FAS or FAE are examined. Specifically, through listening to the participants this study examines: • their experiences of searching for, finding, and having friendships, • the meanings friendships have for them, and • their views of friendship experiences as they face the challenges of FAS or FAE. The individual stories of participants' experiences of friendship are presented in their own words. The complexities of their collective friendship experiences are interwoven in a narrative analysis. Key aspects of participants' friendship experiences include: being different and being not different; school, not a good place for me; ruptured relationships, loss of birth mother and then losing count; longing and searching for friendships; finding, making friendships; company; shared qualities/ experiences; links to meeting others; acceptance and unconditionality; confidante and confidentiality; reciprocal help and support; going through it together; and we work best together.
Factors determining the perception of a helper
(1972) Chung, Betty Jamie Yu-Juen; Hoppe, Ronald A.
The purpose of this study was to show that a recipient of help liked the helper better a) when the perceived motive of the helper was altruistic than when it was ulterior, b) when help given did not imply incompetence than when it did, and c) when the recipient perceived himself as being able to reciprocate than when he perceived himself as being unable to do so. A 2 x 2 x 2 design was employed to test these three hypotheses. 96 female and 96 male university students were used in Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 respectively. Subjects, run individually, were told that he and another subject (the confederate) were to work on different tasks, and were also told that their score on their task was dependent (ulterior motive condition) or not dependent (altruistic motive condition) on the other subject's score, and that they could (capable to reciprocate condition) or could not (incapable to reciprocate condition) help the other subject in the second task. Then subjects were given help by the other subject, either with the implication that the subjects were incompetent (incompetence condition) or without such an implication (competence condition). Subjects were asked to rate the other subject on a series of attraction scales. The results showed that subjects rated the confederate favourably regardless of which experimental condition they were in. Implications of these results are discussed.
Aggressive and assertive behaviors of elite rugby players
(2000) Brown, Nicholas J.; Howe, Bruce L.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between assertive and aggressive behaviors and performance in elite international rugby. Hostile and instrumental aggressive and assertive acts were examined in relation to performance, competitive level, competition stage, timing of aggression, field position and points differential between teams. The data sample consisted of teams competing in the 1999 Rugby World Cup tournament in Wales. Teams examined were the top four teams at the end of the tournament (classified as successful) and the five teams which failed to win a match in the tournament (classified as unsuccessful). Hostile and instrumental aggressive and assertive behaviors were coded on the basis of an extensive observation schedule of the players in each of the matches. All games were recorded on videotape so they could be observed accurately and objectively. A series of one-way analyses of variance were conducted on the data comparing assertive and hostile and instrumental aggressive acts, with field position, time in the game, stage in the tournament, and teams (successful or unsuccessful). Where ANOVAS found significant differences between conditions posthoct tests were conducted. Findings indicated that hostile and instrumental aggressive behaviour was not related to performance for teams competing at the 1999 Rugby World Cup Tournament. Aggressive behaviour was also found to be unrelated to the stage of the tournament that teams were competing in, or the period of the game. No differences were found in the levels of hostile and instrumental aggressive behaviour between successful and unsuccessful teams. Analysis of aggressive behaviour, point's differential, and field position indicated that most acts of aggression occurred in the neutral zone of the field and when scores were close. Assertive play was positively related to performance, competitive level, and stage of the tournament. The results are discussed in relation to previous findings and implications for coaches discussed.
Tones in whispered Chinese: articulatory features and perceptual cues
(2002) Gao, Man; Esling, John H.
Whisper is a common modality of speech communication, regardless of language. In most phonetic studies, descriptions of the larynx during whispering concentrate on the horizontal plane of the glottis. A review of linguistic studies on whispered speech in tone languages shows that there is more concern about people's ability to perceive tones in whispered speech than about how they perceive them, given that the most important perceptual cue, FO, is absent. In order to explain how pitch information is conveyed in the absence of FO, therefore, this study investigates how whispered tones are produced from the perspective of a broader view of the larynx and what contributes to Mandarin Chinese tone recognition in whisper. Three experiments were conducted in this study. Laryngoscopic endoscopy was used in the first experiment to observe the pharynx and larynx when Mandarin tones are produced in phonated and whispered speech. The second experiment involved data collection for acoustic analysis. Two male and two female native speakers of Mandarin produced three sets of syllables with four contrasting tones in isolation and in sentential environments. The data collected were analyzed acoustically with speech-analysis software and played as stimuli to ten native speakers of Mandarin in the third experiment, a perception test. A number of conclusions were drawn based on the results of these experiments: (1) the laryngeal sphincter mechanism is found to be a principal contributing physiological maneuver in the production of whisper, emphasizing the vertical rather than the horizontal component of the laryngeal source; (2) two special behavioral maneuvers are also used in whisper: male speakers tend to lengthen vocalic duration and female speakers tend to exaggerate the amplitude contours of Tone 3 and Tone 4; (3) these two special behavioral maneuvers and two temporal envelope parameters contribute to tone recognition in whisper, but the phonetic context is shown to be a distraction; (4) the environments of the target tones cause perceptual differences, and the ranking of these environments in order of increasing degree of difficulty is: isolation, sentence-final, sentence-medial and sentence-initial; (5) the ranking of the four tones in isolation, in order of increasing degree of perceptual difficulty is: Tone 3, Tone 4, Tone l and Tone 2. This is the first time that empirical evidence has been gathered to test the notion of 'special maneuver' proposed by linguists in the 1970s; it is also a first look in depth at the articulatory production mechanism for whisper. This study contributes to our knowledge of the phonetic production and linguistic realization of whispered tones in Mandarin Chinese by providing a complete description of the articulatory mechanism and a comprehensive report on how they are perceived in various environments.
A model for the processing of sequential information
(1979) MacGregor, James Norman; Bavelas, Alex
The dissertation proposed and tested a quantitative model of the processing of sequential information. In the first chapter, criticisms were made of the most generally accepted current quantification of sequential patterns. First, the argument was forwarded that the high correlations which support the measure are not truly representative of its predictive power. It was demonstrated that the measure typically takes on a highly limited range of values, and for this reason cannot account for much of the systematic variation found in behaviour. Second, it was argued that the measure is conceptually limited and cannot account for the results of a particular class of sequential processing studies concerned with temporal patterning. In the second chapter a new quantitative model was proposed, which provides a measure of sequential patterns called " structural embeddedness" or "embeddedness-of-runs." The measure is sensitive to the relative positions of the larger and smaller subjective structures within a sequential pattern. It takes on a minimum value when the magnitudes of structures vary inversely with their degree of embeddedness within a pattern. This means that the lowest value obtains when the largest subjective structures are in the outermost positions, the next largest structures in the next outermost positions, and so on. It takes on a maximum value when the opposite is true, and the largest structures are in the innermost positions, the next largest in the next innermost, and so on. Comparisons of the structural embeddedness of sequences with behavioural data in the literature indicated that subjects appear to prefer patterns with minimal structural embeddedness. Other results examined indicated that the subjective complexity of sequences varies directly with the degree of structural embeddedness. Two main hypotheses were proposed: that the complexity of sequences varies as a direct function of structural embeddedness, and that sequences tend to be organized into forms which minimize their structural embeddedness. In the third chapter psychological interpretations of the model’s two parameters were considered. The embeddedness of structures was proposed to reflect the order in which they are processed, with outermost structures being processed first, next outermost, next, and so on, resulting in an "endsinward" type of processing. The magnitude of structures was given two possible interpretations: either larger structures required more effort, in the process of forming or, once formed, they represented more salient features of a sequence. The order- of- processing hypothesis, and the effort or salience hypothesis were proposed as subsidiary hypotheses. The fourth chapter described the general method used in testing the experimental hypotheses. The method involved tracking subjects' anticipations during processing, and classifying responses into correct anticipation, wrong anticipation and no anticipation (copy response). The fifth chapter described two experiments. Both experiments found significant differences in the complexity of sequences across levels of structural embeddedness, under conditions where other features of sequences were controlled. This supported the first hypothesis. The second experiment demonstrated a significant tendency for sequences to be reorganized towards minimizing structural embeddedness. This result supported the second hypothesis. In addition, the first experiment confirmed that embeddedness reflects order-of-processing, and indicated that the magnitude of structures affects their salience, with larger structures being more readily processed. The structural embeddedness measure was therefore interpreted as reflecting the degree to which the most readily processed structures of a sequence are in the most readily processed positions. Such an arrangement appears to maximize subjective pattern "goodness." Hypotheses were proposed to explain this finding, and a more general psychological theory outlined. The final chapter considered possible extensions of the theory into the related areas of serial learning and verbal processing. Finally, an issue more central to the basic theory was discussed.
The effect of sex of rater in adult ratings of child behaviour
(1975) Kilpatrick, Doreen Leila; Duncan, Pam
Research concerning the behaviour of children beyond the preschool years has of ten relied on the use of rating scales as a meansof assessing child behaviour. In the present study, ratings by both parents of normal children, and ratings by both parents and child care workers , acting as "surrogate" parents, on maladjusted children, were analyzed. It was found that the degree to which ratings reflected favourable assessments was dependent on both the sex of rater and the sex of child. The degree of consensus obtained between male and female raters was dependent on the sex and the diagnosis of the child (normal or maladjusted). There was a difference in rating style between male and female raters, with female raters demonstrating more frequent use of the extreme rating categories than males. These results were discussed and interpreted in terms of a common frame of reference (sex role training) for female raters, the tendency toward idiosyncratic or individualized responses for male raters, and the effect of differing degree of rater/child contact.
The neurocognitive mechanisms underlying perseveration
(1985) Monti Ewing, Jocelyn Anne; Costa, Louis
This dissertation was divided into three parts. The first part presented a critical review of the neuropsychological literature regarding perseveration and demonstrated the absence of a systematic theoretical model of the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon, particularly in patients with nonfrontal lesions. The second part presented such a model, based on both neuropsychological and cognitive data concerned with the voluntary regulation of attention (cerebral activation). Perseveration is viewed as one manifestation of the breakdown of such regulatory processes and the model provides a framework both for the integration of past findings and for future, more systematic investigation of the nature of perseverative phenomena. The third part presented several such investigations in order to provide both a preliminary empirical validation of the model and to demonstrate its heuristic potential for both neuropsychology and cognitive psychology. Three research questions were investigated using a multiple case study design. Each of eighteen non-frontal (six "deep," six "shallow, " six "combined"), seven frontal and eleven normal (non brain-damaged) subjects were tested and the quality and pattern of their results were examined in detail. Both individual performances and trends within and between groups were discussed. A voluntary attention deficit could account for 77. 8 percent of the perseverative errors made by the eighteen nonfrontal patients (reflective perseveration) and could not be accounted for by previous explanations of perseverative mechanisms. Furthermore, there was a strong positive association between reflective perseveration and other signs of a voluntary attention deficit. Similar errors, in terms of the quality, pattern and association with other signs of an attentional deficit, were seen in the frontal patients. The majority of patients with deep midline involvement demonstrated signs of an attentional deficit (six combined, four deep), whereas only one shallow patient did so, providing preliminary support for the model's neuroanatomical proposals. Finally, three classification systems for perseverative errors were investigated, both confirming and extending earlier typologies across a variety of patients and tasks. The implications of these results for modifications to the model, future investigations and for the potential of such an integrated approach to both neuropsychology and cognitive psychology were discussed.
A test of two minimax models for predicting the scaling of partitions of stimulus sets
(1977) Lee, Stephen Lee; Bavelas, Alex
The organizing of a set of objects by partitioning them into groups is an aspect of many familiar tasks. A distinction is drawn between the sorting version of the partitioning tasks in which the basis for sorting a set of objects into groups is explicitly specified and the classification version of the tasks in which no objective is explicitly specified. In contrast to such traditional problems as concept identification in which the partitioning is prescribed by the experimenter and the subject is required to identify the underlying concept, the subject in either a classification or a sort situation has the freedom to partition a set of objects in any way that he chooses. The present research is directed towards the ultimate goal of developing a model that would predict the partitions made by subjects when sorting objects on the basis of perceived physical similarity. In sorting on the basis of similarity, subjects presumably attempt to maximize the similarity within groups and the difference between groups. This sorting objective is called the "minimax'' objective. It is argued that, when sorting on similarity, subjects compare possible partitions in terms of the degree to which they meet the mini1nax objective. Two competing models were developed to predict subjects' judgments of the degree to which a given partition of the stimulus objects meet the minimax objective. The proposed models are not models of sorting but models of the judgmental processes that are assumed to be involved in the process of sorting. The specific purpose of the two dissertation experiments was, first, to test whether subjects can make minimax judgments and, second, to test the two models of the judgmental process. Although both judgmental models could, with the addition of supplementary assumptions, have been tested in a sorting situation, the experiments provided a more direct test of the judgmental assumptions. The relevance of these experiments and models to the problem of sorting is discussed in the dissertation. In each experiment, subjects were required, first, to judge the similarity between all possible pairs of objects and, second, to judge the degree of similarity within and difference between groups for each of a number of selected partitions. Consistency was high among subjects both in their judgments of similarity and in their judgments of minimax. On the basis of the pairwise similarity judgments, predictions of the minimax judgments for partitions were generated from each model and compared with the corresponding minimax judgments actually made by the subjects. The weighted-means model was supported to a degree over the unweighted-means model; the informal verbal reports of subjects tended to confirm this superiority of the weighted model. However, both models were very good predictors of the obtained minimax judgments.
Facial recognition: hemispheric asymmetry, processing strategy, importance of individual features and the influence of changing memory intervals
(1977) Van Mastrigt, Robert Leonardes; Spreen, Otfried
Three studies were designed to investigate the relationship between hemispheric asymmetries and differential processing strategies in facial recognition, the role of individual facial features and the influence of variable retention intervals on the emergence of hemispheric asymmetries and processing strategies. The right hemisphere is thought to process visual information as a global unit, while the left hemisphere processes the same information in a sequential or serial fashion. A total of 45 volunteer male subjects were pretested for right-handedness, equal and normal short distance visual acuity, and right ear superiority on a verbal dichotic listening test. Identi-Kit face pairs, composed of up to six features, were presented under visual half field tachistoscopic conditions in a forced-choice (same/ different) recognition paradigm. The dependent variables were percent recognition accuracy and recognition speed, defined as the reaction time in milliseconds from the onset of a comparison face to the initiation of a response. Hemisphere superiority was inferred from visual field superiority. In Study I, 15 subjects were presented face pairs equally divided between right and left visual fields, same and different presentations and a variable number of features (4, 5 or 6). The prediction that reaction times would increase with the number of features presented to the right visual field but not to the left visual field was not upheld. There was guarded support for a global processing strategy in both hemispheres. There were no accuracy differences. In Study II. 15 subjects were exposed to face pairs equally divided between the visual fields. same and different presentations and a variable number of differences between faces (1, 3 or 6). The prediction that reaction times decrease as the number of face differences increase for right visual field compared to left visual field presentations was not upheld. Reaction times decreased with increasing face differences in both visual fields indicating an overall serial process. The left visual field reaction time superiority, when faces differed on 3 or 6 features, changed to a right visual field superiority, when faces differed on only one feature. Implications for a dual processing model were discussed. Faces were more accurately recognized when presented to the left visual field compared to the right visual field. In addition, the prediction that faces would be better and faster recognized on the basis of the eyes, rather than the nose or mouth, was confirmed. In Study III, 15 subjects were presented face pairs equally divided between the two visual half-fields, same and different presentations and three interstimulus retention intervals (50, 100 or 500 milliseconds). The prediction that hemispheric asymmetries emerge only after the brief visual trace of the first face has deteriorated (200-250 milliseconds) was confirmed. A left visual field superiority was evident with retention intervals of 500 milliseconds, but not with 50 or 100 milliseconds. There was evidence supporting an overall global processing strategy, whether the brief visual trace was active or not. As in Study I, there were no accuracy differences. The results were discussed in terms of a dual coding strategy in which a material-specific hemisphere specialization interacts with a processing-specific hemisphere specialization on a continuum of discrimination difficulty. The relationship between accuracy and speed of recognition was also discussed.
Lateralized mere exposure: an analytic/non-analytic processing approach
(2002) Price, John Ryan; Kerns, Kimberly A.
It is known that individuals have a preference for items they have seen before, even when those items are presented so quickly that they cannot be consciously recalled (the "mere exposure effect"). Whittlesea and Price (2001) concluded that the mere exposure effect was an artefact of the alternative strategies (analytic vs. non-analytic) that subjects were using to generate information about stimuli they were exposed to at test. Specifically, a non-analytic strategy promoted target selection above chance, whereas an analytic strategy prevented target selection above chance. The current study elaborated on this analytic/non-analytic distinction. Many studies have demonstrated that the right-hemisphere uses a non-analytic strategy for processing stimuli, whereas the left hemisphere uses an analytic strategy. Given this dissociation, it was predicted that a mere exposure effect would be found when stimuli were initially presented to the LVF, but not when initially presented to the RVF. Results modestly supported these predictions.
Multicomponent analysis of the repetition effect in word identification and lexical decision
(1985) Freedman, Lawrence; Masson, Michael E. J.
The purpose of this study was to examine the mechanisms responsible for the repetition effect in word identification and lexical decision. The repetition effect refers to the facilitative effects of a prior presentation of a word on its later identification. An explanatory model of repetition effects was proposed in which facilitation in word identification and lexical decision is viewed as being based on memory for prior lexical access in modality-specific and modality-free systems of representation. Four experiments were conducted in order to explore the efficacy of the model. Experiments 1 through 3 employed a study- test format in which the test phase involved a visual-perceptual word identification task. The results from Experiments 1 and 2 indicated that repetition effects are sensitive to word-specific features demonstrated by the absence of orthographic (Experiment 1) and semantic (Experiment 2) facilitation in word identification. Facilitation was observed only when the same word was presented during study and test phases. In addition, although both visual and auditory study yielded significant facilitation when identical words were studied and tested, intramodal repetition produced greater facilitation than cross- modal repetition. The findings from Experiment 3 indicated that both visual and auditory encoding facilitated later word identification over a retention interval of 24 hours. Experiment 4 involved repeated presentation of homographs in a lexical decision task and demonstrated that the degree of facilitation in lexical decision was highly dependent upon repeating a specific homograph meaning across presentations. The results from the 4 experiments tentatively support a model of repetition effects that consists of two systems of representation. Repetition effects are seen as being based on memory for prior access to a specific lexical entry in a modality-specific system and a modality-free system. In these interactive lexical systems, exposure to a word produces a memory representation for access to the word's entry in each system. Activation of these memory representations facilitates identification when the word is later repeated.
The measurement of nonverbal memory
(1980) Speers, Robert Leslie; Costa, Louis
In this monograph, the concept of nonverbal memory (NVM) is introduced and it is argued that NVM is an important explanatory construct which is dissociable from related higher-order functions such as perception, learning, and verbal memory. The first four chapters provide comprehensive reviews of the literature relevant to the history and current status of NVM. In subsequent chapters, evidence as to the "nonverbalness" of five types of stimulus material is first surveyed and then these materials are contrasted directly, as to their potential for verbal mediation, in an experimental study. A model for the measurement of NVM is presented and finally, three new clinical tests of NVM are described. The Introduction begins with a working definition of NVM, emphasizing its task-dependent nature and restricting the scope of interest to those studies which include visually presented memoranda, a retention interval, and some stated intent to measure NVM. Within these limits, the reviews are considered to be exhaustive in coverage of both the basic theoretical work and the memory-disorders literature. As such, they constitute the first systematic treatment of the topic of NVM. Chapter 1 presents a brief interpretive summary of how the concept of NVM has been regarded during the history of psychology. Cyclical fluctuations in popularity are described and the major trends which have led to the present revival of interest are identified. The issue of multiple kinds of memory is evaluated next followed by a review of theories and data which suggest that NVM operates in some fundamentally different way from verbal memory. Here, consideration is given to controversial topics of high current interest, such as the existence of a short- term memory stage in NVM and the status of NVM deficits in "amnesic syndrome" patients. The extensive body of literature pertaining to the question of cerebral lateralization for NVM is then evaluated with sources of evidence organized by type of patient population. Several problems with, or arguments against, the viability of the NVM construct are next examined. In the final section of Chapter 4 the argument is advanced that the resolution of all these issues is primarily dependent upon progress in developing better methods of measurement. In the last four chapters, attention is focused mainly upon the problem of designing valid NVM tasks. Five kinds of material are first considered as to their adequacy for use in the construction of NVM tasks. For each material, the typical ways in which the commonly available stimuli have been employed in NVM tasks are reviewed. Particular consideration is given to those factors which may influence the degree of nonverbalness" of each stimulus material. In chapter 6, methods which may be used to attempt to empirically validate memory tasks as being nonverbal in nature are first reviewed briefly. Shortcomings of each of these are indicated and one procedure, communication accuracy, is chosen as the best possibility for further elaboration. An experiment is then described using this method to evaluate the comparative "nonverbalness" of the five kinds of material just presented. The results of this study permit the selection of specific items which appear to be the least amenable to verbal encoding. A discussion of some general principles relevant to the measurement of memory of any kind is presented next. The definition of memory is considered and a simple model is suggested to operationally specify the essential components of a memory task and to dissociate memory from related concepts. Finally, detailed description5 of three new clinical tests of NVM are presented. Each test illustrates ways to minimize the involvement of verbal mediation by following the material selection/arrangement suggestions of chapter 5 and the empirical item analyses of chapter 6. Moreover, these tests also demonstrate how the basic principles of memory measurement, as described in chapter 7, can be operationalized using a variety of NVM materials and procedures.

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