Theses (Sociology)

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Theses from the Dept. of Sociology.

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When empathy becomes a crime: The repression and criminalization of animal activism in Canada
(2025) Zavitz, Tayler; Weiler, Anelyse
This dissertation explores the historical and contemporary repression and criminalization of animal rights activists in Canada. While the current literature on social movements is rife with the documentation and analysis of many historical and current social movements, the animal liberation movement is often missing in these considerations, especially within the Canadian context. There is a notable absence of comprehensive, historical examinations of how animal activism has been repressed in Canada, and activist perspectives are often underrepresented in the existing literature. My dissertation therefore directly responds to this gap in the literature, bringing the animal liberation movement into greater visibility within academic discourse on social movements. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the dissertation combines archival research with original qualitative data gathered through oral history interviews with animal activists, animal lawyers, and legal scholars. This triangulation of data allowed for the construction of a detailed timeline of the animal rights movement in Canada and an analysis of the strategic and collaborative efforts used by state and private actors to repress dissent and protect the animal industrial complex. The research findings reveal that the repressive tactics used against Canadian animal activists closely parallel those seen within the United Kingdom and the United States, pointing to a transnational pattern of ideological and structural repression of the animal rights movement. Further, this dissertation also explores activists’ emotional responses to their repression, specifically pride, hope, fear, and frustration, and the ways in which these emotions impact their engagement in activism. Rather than deterring advocacy, repression has, in many cases, deepened activists’ commitment to their cause. This dissertation contributes to understandings of social movement repression, the role of emotions in activism, and the broader dynamics of advocacy work. By centering activist voices that are often excluded from academic discourse, it serves as both a scholarly contribution and a resource for activists, advancing critical discussions on repression, resistance, and social justice advocacy in increasingly hostile political climates.
Nonbinary identity development in four experiences: Dissonance, catalyst, delay, and actualization
(2025) Woodland, Candace; Devor, Aaron H.
This qualitative master’s thesis project explores the ways in which nonbinary people experience gender identity development. Eleven semi-structured interviews with nonbinary people were conducted and analyzed in order to answer the central research question: How do nonbinary people come to realize that they are nonbinary? Based on the findings from these interviews, the author proposes that nonbinary identity development can be understood through a framework of four common overlapping experiences: (1) Unresolved Dissonance, during which one feels dissonance between their binary gender and their self-concept, but does not meaningfully acknowledge or address it; (2) Catalyst(s) for Change, during which one encounters events or information which prompt them to question their binary gender and consider a nonbinary one; (3) Complication and Delay, during which one encounters internal and/or external barriers that temporarily prevent them from coming into their nonbinary identities; and finally, (4) Identity Actualization, which occurs when one experiences stimuli and/or events that allow them to overcome the aforementioned barriers, and shift their self-concepts to include nonbinary gender identities.
Farmers' perspectives on transitions away from animal agriculture food systems
(2024) Barnard, Alison E.; Smith, André
Despite a growing field of research on how workers in highly polluting sectors are transitioning to more sustainable livelihoods, little research is available on how farmers in animal agriculture engage in such transitions. Conventional animal agriculture is widely recognized as a significant contributor to climate change and other environmental problems. This research explored farmers’ motivations for transitioning away from animal agriculture and toward plant-based agriculture or animal sanctuaries, documenting sources of support and the barriers farmers face in transitioning. The research design entailed qualitative semi-structured interviews with eight U.S. farmers. The study was guided by the multi-level perspective (MLP) in the analysis and discussion section of the thesis. The findings showed that there are a multitude of forces influencing farm transitions, indicating a need to use a wide variety of strategies for transitions. Beyond economic and political motivations, some farmers in the study were motivated by a change in their view on animals whereby they no longer agree with animal agriculture processes such as breeding and sending animals to slaughter. Farmers noted barriers to transitioning such as the burden of debt, particularly for contract chicken farmers, an increase in labour demands with vegetable production, and the need to develop new marketing strategies to align with their new enterprises. The study’s findings can inform farm policy on supporting farmers who wish to transition their farms from animal to plant-based operations.
Breaking the binary: Gender identity communication of nonbinary individuals in Türkiye
(2024) Gümüşpala, Şansal Güngör; Devor, Aaron H.
This qualitative study explores nonbinary individuals’ experiences with communicating gender by asking how they, while predominantly speaking Turkish and living in Türkiye, try to communicate to other people that they are nonbinary. Turkish-speaking individuals who do not identify with binary genders employ various communication strategies, offering valuable insights into the relationship between gender and language. Drawing on 13 in-depth interviews with nonbinary people living in Türkiye, this research offers three key findings. First, Turkish-speaking nonbinary people suffer less from grammar-based challenges and more from semantic challenges when communicating their identities because Turkish is a grammatically gender-neutral language. Second, participants discuss different strategies they use to express their nonbinary identity, such as borrowing words from other languages and using humor to smooth over challenging conversations. They also frequently take on the role of educating others about gender-related terms and concepts. Finally, participants stress that communicating their gender identity goes beyond simply sharing; it’s about being acknowledged and accepted. Therefore, their methods of expression shift depending on the social context, societal expectations, and the availability of supportive resources. Taken together, these findings reveal how the Turkish language, along with cisheterosexual norms and expectations, shape both the construction and expression of gender identity. This research offers a unique look at the relationship between society’s use of language and the impact of language on society, while taking into account the influence of traditions and cultural norms.
Graduate experiences in community-engaged research: Exploring the motivations, barriers, and benefits of graduate students conducting community-engaged research
(2024) Falle, Patrick; Humphrey, Tamara
In recent decades, universities have increasingly emphasized collaboration between academic researchers and non-academic communities, leading to a growing use of community-engaged research (CEnR) approaches to address social and health-related issues. CEnR focuses on collaborative research between academic researchers and members of the community where the research topic or issue is situated – generally researching a topic that is put forward by the community in question. This trend has extended to graduate students, who are steadily adopting CEnR approaches in their theses and dissertations. However, limited research exists on the specific experiences of graduate students working within a CEnR framework, as well as on the factors that affect their capacity to meaningfully engage in this approach. This study explores the motivations, values, and experiences of nine graduate students conducting CEnR for their thesis or dissertation research. Through interviews, I examine how these students adopt CEnR practices, build relationships with community partners, and navigate the challenges unique to CEnR. Findings indicate that, beyond challenges commonly reported in the literature, graduate students face additional barriers, including limited knowledge and skills in CEnR, difficulties in establishing and sustaining community relationships, and the need to balance CEnR commitments with academic requirements and personal life. Participants suggested resources to support future CEnR students, including more undergraduate and graduate methods courses on CEnR, an accessible repository of CEnR materials, and additional funding for community engagement activities. Despite these challenges, graduate students value CEnR for its potential to create ethically sound, collaborative, and trust-based partnerships between academic researchers and community members.
Institutional inquiry: Campus responses to gender-based violence in British Columbia
(2024) Perry, Nell; Humphrey, Tamara
Sexual assault is among the most common forms of violence perpetrated against women and gender-diverse people; in Canada, university and college campuses are among the most prevalent sites of this violence (MacKenzie, 2019). Since 2016, campuses in Canada have become increasingly responsible for responding to and preventing gender-based violence, including sexual violence related to their campuses. Responses have come in the form of sexual violence policy and, at some post-secondary institutions, the establishment of designated sexual violence response offices and support staff (Albert & Perry, 2024). This research focuses on the experiences and institutional processes of student survivors who seek institutional support for campus gender-based violence at their post-secondary institution in British Columbia, and the support staff who assist them with these processes. To understand these experiences, data come from eleven qualitative semi-structured interviews, six of which were with survivors who have been through the process of seeking support on campus, and five of which were with individuals in the role of supporting survivors on campus. Interview data are contextualized alongside a consideration of relevant post-secondary policies to facilitate a robust analysis of institutional support processes that both survivors and support staff engage with, and the policies that they are both organized and coordinated by. Findings indicate that campus response is critical for survivors to receive support to continue their education and feel supported by their institution. Experiences also showed that academic accommodations were one of the most helpful resources campuses can provide. Yet, the process of reporting gender-based violence is intertwined with institutional betrayal for both survivors and those who support them. The harm caused through institutional betrayal is upheld by policy documents that tend to state institutional values, often performatively, in the response process rather than outlining the entirety of the process. This leads to confusion, betrayal, and a lack of clarity for survivors, demonstrating a diffusion of responsibility for those seeking to support them. I conclude by highlighting promising practices such as providing less punitive responses when desired by the survivor; moving to a policy framework that centers collective safety not just individual safety; decreasing dismissals of disclosures; and, increasing transparency in the reporting process.
Emerging tropes: Race, gender, and monstrosity master frames in podcasts' depiction of serial killers
(2024) Mohammed, Bushra; Hier, Sean P.
Race and gender are socially constructed identities that have severe ramifications on individuals lived experience, hence their conceptualization as master statuses. For a long time, researchers have noted that these constructs drive media frames, particularly in media reports on delinquency and crime. These frames have been explicated to be advantageous and detrimental, the implication being dependent on the race or gender of concerned individuals. However, this age-long report of race and gender as determinants of media frames have been contested in recent studies. Nonetheless, these literatures lack an intersectional approach to the contemporary understanding of the deterministic role of race and gender in the framing of crime by the media. Therefore, I investigated this lacuna by focusing on the framing of an extreme form of violence- serial killing. Given the increased prominence of the podcast media in society today, the impact of the race and gender of serial killers was simultaneously examined on three known aspects of media frames-race master frames, gender master frames, and monstrosity master frames, drawing samples from true crime podcasts. Race and gender master frames were approached using the stereotypes associated with whiteness, blackness, femininity, and masculinity while monstrosity master frames were approached in terms of celebrity monster and evil monster depictions. Data were analyzed using thematic discourse analysis and results revealed a non-traditional use of race and gender master frames in the depiction of serial killers, what I called the colonization of hegemonic race-based narratives, and monstrosity master frames proved to be dependent on both race and gender. This finding contradicts orthodox sociological account of the absolute deterministic impact of race and gender, as master statuses, on ideology and media frames.
Parole for life: A qualitative inquiry into the Canadian life sentence
(2024) Kish, Nicole; Humphrey, Tamara
Life sentences in Canada punish individuals until their deaths, constituting the harshest sentence permissible under the Criminal Code. Canadian life sentences are presently among the harshest versions of life imprisonment globally. There is a dearth of research into life sentences and their impacts in the Canadian context. To address this, this thesis presents the findings of a qualitative study that considers 19 interviews with life sentenced people in Canada who are living in the community on parole for life. It draws from standpoint theory and thematic analysis as its methodological approach, centering the experiences of people with the sentence, then broadens to locate individual experiences within the legislative and policy framework that they are embedded within and socially organized by. This approach highlights the ways that life sentences constitute an opaquely administered sentencing regime that is operating in conflict with the listed goals and limits of Canada’s prison system. The goal of Canada’s prison system is to be reintegrative, yet through the administration of the sentence, life sentenced people are both expected to and prevented from reaching this goal. This liberatory research roots analysis in critical legal and political theory, centering the impacts of law in society. It demonstrates that the conditions of parole-for-life are operating without procedural safeguards, fracturing families and creating invisible isolation in the community in particularly harmful manners for Indigenous Peoples, and for the many very young people who are given live sentences in Canada. Building on Agamben’s concept of states of exception, parole-for-life is explored as a rising status of exclusion, pronouncing not just the adverse impacts this status creates for those who are subjected to it, but also the power potentialities that the increasing normalization and presence of this status provides to the state. Broadly, findings offer that the presence of perpetual punishment is changing the nature of the relationship between citizen and state. Practical policy and legislative solutions are offered, emphasizing the need to legislate a process to terminate life sentence parole after a successful behavioral period is demonstrated in the community, which is aligned with international human rights law and the practices of many countries globally.
Critical infrastructure protection or persuasion? The hegemonic and repressive function of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police during the Coastal Gaslink flashpoint
(2024) Francis, Caitlin; Carroll, William K.
Throughout the Canadian settler-colonial project, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) has been a dominant police force within critical infrastructure protection (CIP). CIP, often focused on the securitization of resource extraction projects, repeatedly confronts Indigenous dissent and Indigenous assertion of sovereignty. In adherence with the RCMP’s historical role, a division of the British Columbia RCMP, Community-Industry Response Group (C-IRG), was specifically created to police pipeline projects. This project looks at the function C-IRG performed during the Coastal Gaslink (CGL) pipeline project (constructed by TC Energy), which trespasses through unceded Wet’suwet’en land without consent. In order to better understand C-IRG’s role within CIP, Freedom of Information (FOI) and Access to Information (ATI) requests were submitted to multiple government organizations. The key findings from this research underline that C-IRG operates as both an ideological and repressive force. The force, shifting towards a more intelligence-led approach, can result in greater coercion, as enforcements are informed by risk assessments. At the same time, C-IRG assessed land defenders as illegal and occupying protesters, which allowed C-IRG to position themselves as a neutral peacekeeping force, adhering to the “benevolent Mountie” myth, which the force reproduced within legacy media. The CGL flashpoint revealed C-IRG's coercion on Wet'suwet'en territory and confronted the RCMP's benevolent image. Thus, C-IRG used the reach of legacy media to attempt to restore its ideological image, which was simultaneously supported by other fossil fuel allies within the media during the flashpoint.
"I'm here for it... but I'm not 'Feminist Ken'": Unpacking young men's perspectives on feminism
(2024) Heaney-Corns, Molly; Garlick, Steve
Current understandings of feminism emphasize that men’s inclusion in the feminist movement is of utmost importance to achieve gender equality and dismantle hegemonic power structures. Despite this, there is a shortage of contemporary research exploring the manner through which men understand feminism, and how that understanding may influence their willingness to engage with feminism. Using semi-structured interviews with thirteen men enrolled at the University of Victoria, this research explores some of the ways that young men are understanding and engaging with feminism. The research questions guiding this project are: 1. How do young men understand and engage with feminism? What factors influence this relationship? 2. How do social norms of masculinity influence men’s relationship with feminism? Findings indicate that participants' understandings of feminism are complex and sometimes contradictory. All participants indicated that they supported gender equality broadly, yet also expressed resistance to various elements of feminism. Specifically, the data indicates that participants commonly understand feminism positively when framed in terms of liberal feminism, and express resistance to forms of feminism that challenge traditional patriarchal structures. The data also suggests that young men’s understanding of feminism is intertwined with their understanding of masculinity and their role as men in society, as participants expressed concern over backlash from other men and discussed archetypes of demographics of men most likely to engage in feminism. Overall, this study suggests that young men’s understanding of feminism transcends binary acceptance or rejection, and is often intertwined with their understanding of masculinity and performance of their gender. Furthermore, the findings provide insight into the ways that young men are currently grappling with shifting hegemonic norms of masculinity, and the potential consequences that may have on their understanding of their role in social change and gender equality.
You are so much more than your diagnosis: Exploring subjectivity and sense of self while living with a chronic sexually transmitted infection
(2024) Cannatella, Alanna; Albert, Katelin
This project focuses on stigma and sexual health by investigating the lived experiences of individuals diagnosed with a chronic sexually transmitted infection (STI). I explore how their STI diagnosis impacts their sense of self and their relationships. Data come from 21 semi-structured in-depth interviews with individuals living with chronic STIs (Herpes Simplex Virus, HIV, and HPV). Interview questions consisted of exploring particular experiences related to living with a chronic STI (i.e. process of diagnosis, disclosing STI status to sexual partners, etc.) and various thoughts and feelings associated with living with a chronic STI. The study found that being diagnosed with a chronic STI disrupts one’s sense of self by forcing them to grapple with negativity and questions of self-worth, self-esteem, and identity disruption. This disruption was often intense and negative in the early stages of living with a chronic STI but improved significantly after rebuilding their sense of sense of self and accepting the often-insignificant realities of living with a chronic STI. Several common themed emerged regarding the impact of being diagnosed with and living with an incurable STI such as impacts on romantic, platonic, and familial relationships. Informants reported the presence and discussions regarding STIs to have one of three impacts: 1) strengthening meaningful and caring dynamics; 2) damaging or ending weak and surface level connections; or 3) largely having no meaningful impact on solid pre-existing dynamics without sexual activity. Informants highlighted several positive impacts that they had not anticipated emerging from living with a chronic STI, including: forming deeper, higher quality connections with others; prioritizing self-love and self-care; dating more intentionally and with higher standards, and finding a special sense of community amongst other STI+ individuals. Overall, despite having intense emotional, personal, romantic, and social struggles associated with the initial process of being diagnosed and living with a chronic STI, most informants discovered that their STI had little-to-no meaningful negative impact on their lives.
Racial disparities in cognitive functioning in middle and later life: The role of stressors as mediators and social resources as moderators
(2024) Haq, Kazi Sabrina; Penning, Margaret; Zhou, Min
This dissertation explored the complex dynamics of racial disparities in cognitive functioning during middle and later life, examining the mediating role of stressors and the moderating influence of social resources within the Canadian context. Empirical analyses utilized baseline data from the ongoing Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging, a survey of Canadians aged 45 to 85 years (n=51,338). Through ordinary least squares regression models, with survey weighting and multiple imputation for missing data, the study revealed the presence of racial disparities in cognitive functioning during middle and later life in Canada. Furthermore, using an intersectionality lens, the findings also revealed that race intersected with immigrant status and gender, influencing this health outcome as well. The application of the Stress Process Model (SPM) shed light on the mechanisms underlying these disparities. Both primary stressors (e.g., household income and homeownership) and secondary stressors (e.g., psychological stressors like self-rated general health, mental health, life satisfaction, and depression) mediated the relationship between race and cognitive test performance. Social resources such as marital status, social support and social participation demonstrated moderating effects on the relationship between specific stressors and cognitive functioning, and the moderation effect differs across races. Specifically, these social resources amplify the positive effects of some socioeconomic protective factors (i.e., reduced primary stressors) and subjective well-being factors (i.e., reduced secondary stressors/intrasychic strains) more for racial minorities than for whites. These findings hold significant theoretical, research, and policy implications. A key theoretical implication of this study is the value of incorporating an intersectionality framework into the SPM for an understanding of how race interacts with other identities to affect cognitive functioning through differences in exposure to various stressors and social resources. There is also a need for research that compares different racial groups to understand variations in exposure to various stressors and their impact on cognitive health. Further, with regard to policy, our findings point to the need for policymakers to address racial disparities in socioeconomic status (SES) and intrapsychic or psychological strains in order to reduce racial disparities in cognitive health outcomes. Additionally, policymakers should focus on enhancing the social support networks of members of racial minority groups and increasing their social participation levels in order to alleviate the negative effects of stress-related exposures. Finally, future research should explore the persistence of racial inequalities in cognitive health outcomes in Canada, examining how socioeconomic factors and subjective psychological well-being contribute to these disparities over time, and compare different racial groups to understand variations in discrimination exposure and its impact on health.
"Into the space of being a sociologist": Student, community partner, and faculty experiences of community-engaged learning
(2024) Kroeker, Alexandra; Ravelli, Bruce
This study explores the experiences of undergraduate students, community partners, and faculty in one Community-Engaged Learning (CEL) course. Building on the work of previous CEL scholarship, data was collected across the eight-month course using mixed methods (including surveys, focus groups, interviews, content analysis, and observations) in order to answer the research questions: What are the primary benefits and challenges to students, community partners, and instructor in one undergraduate community-engaged learning course? In what ways do their experiences (benefits and challenges) intersect? The findings demonstrate that while stakeholders experience differing benefits and challenges due to their context-specific perspectives, they also share key benefits and challenges which underscore the transformative potential of CEL.
The second sex : a work in progress
(1992) Yaffe, Deborah Rachel
The Second Sex, by Simone de Beauvoir, was the founding text of the feminist Second Wave, providing the theoretical basis for the main strands of activist theory and practice and for feminist scholarship. The widespread influence of Beauvoir's text was mainly due to the use made of her ideas by the major texts of the early Women's Liberation Movement. Subsequent texts have consistently referred back to The Second Sex, whether to accept or refute, to extend or to modify Beauvoir's arguments. Consequently, The Second Sex continues to function as a magnetic pole by which feminist theorists orient themselves. This study examines how the classic texts of liberal feminism, The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan and The Female Eunuch by Germaine Greer; the classic texts of radical feminism, Kate Millett's Sexual Politics, Shulamith Firestone's The Dialectic of Sex, and Robin Morgan's Sisterhood is Powerful; and the classic socialist feminist texts, Woman's Estate by Juliet Mitchell and Woman's Consciousness, Man's World by Sheila Rowbotham, all relied extensively on Beauvoir's analysis of women's oppression. It demonstrates that current feminist writing continues to base itself on the concepts articulated in The Second Sex and suggests that theoretical breakthroughs may require a thorough revaluation of these concepts.
Socio-economic and cultural factors affecting fertility : a replication of Easterlin and Crimmins
(1988) Wu, Zheng
Earlier theoretical and empirical work showed that there is little consensus on a single theory of human fertility behavior. In 1983, Easterlin advanced a synthetic framework for explaining the socio-economic and cultural impact on fertility control and fertility via three intervening variables: demand for children, supply of children and costs of fertility control. In 1985 the model was tested with the World Fertility Survey (WFS) data for Sri Lanka and Colombia. The current study is a replication of the test of Easterlin's model with the use of the WFS data for South Korea. A total of 1,572 South Korean women were included in the analysis. In keeping with Easterlin and Crimmins' work, similar statistical modeling and operationalization procedures were employed. Multiple regression was the major statistical method used in the data analysis. The test of the Easterlin model went through three inter-connected stages. In stage 1, the model attempts to clarify the linkages between cultural and modernization variables on the one hand, and demand, supply and costs of fertility control on the other. In stage 2, the model looks at the effects of women's motivation for fertility control and costs of fertility control upon the duration of contraceptive usage. In stage 3, the model focuses on the explanation of observed fertility through a "proximate determinants" approach, as advanced by Bongaarts (1978). The findings of this study provided weak support for the stage 1 analysis and moderately strong support for the other two. It was concluded that more work needed to be done to improve the linkages in stage 1 of the Easterlin model, and that the model needed further empirical testing.
Economic reform and small-town development in post-Mao China : a case study of Pearl River Delta Region
(1992) Wu, Youwei
This thesis studies the impact of economic reforms on small-town development in post-Mao China through a political economy approach which emphasizes an agency and structure synthesis and the central role of the state, and applies these perspectives in a case study of small-town development in the Pearl River Delta region. It also acknowledges that both the "diffusion" concept of the modernization theory and the growth version of dependency theory highlight aspects which are partially useful for the explanation of Chinese small-town development. China's development path in the current reform era lies somewhere between the socialist and statist models. Hierarchical organization still remains predominantly statist as the party-state firmly controls the levers of economic activity. Nevertheless, a kind of rational pragmatism has replaced ideological belief as the basis of public policy, including socialist elements to serve the peasants' interests in achieving increased income, improved living standards, and more opportunities for personal development. A favourable institutional framework has been created within which opportunities for initiative and innovation have been opened up and seized at the individual and farm household level. Under the leadership of local cadres, Chinese active agents in agricultural production, rural industrialization, and the use of the Open Door policy. They have thereby succeeded to a limited degree in shaping the process of small-town development to reflect their interests. In short, the process of Chinese small-town development might be described as a hybrid: a localized, spontaneous, i.e. class-based, peasants' movement under the promotion of centrally directed reform policies. In certain regions of coastal China, such as the Pearl River Delta, small-town development has also benefited from the effect of diffusion from the outside world, and one can see an emerging pattern of dependent development, which is an aspect of the overall restructured world system produced by the New International Division of Labour.
The legitimation of clerical authority : the case of the Conference of Mennonites in Canada
(1988) Wilson, Judith Pamela
After 200 years of moving to avoid confrontation with "the world," members of the Conference of Mennonites in Canada have become fairly comfortable and successful in their environment. Having given up the fight to remain separate, they face new identity problems as a religious group without the trappings of ethnicity. They are hesitant about joining the religious mainstream and operate under the awkward congregational polity. A newly awakened concern with the issue of clerical authority has brought about lively debate and some changes within the organization. The legitimation of authority is of particular interest in terms of ministers because of their link to the supernatural and their serving a diminishing constitutency. A four-cell model was proposed by Hammond, Salinas and Sloane (1978). The cells were formed by the intersecting of two dichotomies: the sacred versus profane nature of authority, and the office versus person location of authority. Believing routinized charisma to be an anachronism, they tested for only three authority types in a ten-denomination study. Patterns emerged showing that formality, social involvement, professional involvement and social problems were viewed variously by pastors holding the three remaining views of legitimate clerical authority. Authority was pronounced a useful independent variable in understanding the clergy. A correlation has been shown to exist between the form of an organization and the ways in which authority is legitimated within that organization. It was felt that routinized charisma might be located among small post-sectarian groups such as the Mennonites. Pastors of the Conference of Mennonites in Canada, the largest of the Mennonite groups in this country, were approached through a mail survey. Eighty-one per cent (N= 117) returned completed questionnaires. Seventy-one per cent identified most closely with routinized charismatic authority. Legal-rational authority was soundly rejected. No patterns of significance were found in the way ministers reported carrying out their tasks, nor did any of six possible predictor variables show a strong association with the distribution of authority preferences. Authority and group identity are not synonymous but each reflects the other to a high degree. Routinized charisma is a suitable mode of authority legitimation for a group that has only recently accepted acculturation. It is appropriate to a group that is struggling with such issues as separation from the world and exclusivity which affect its place on the sect-denomination-church continuum. Authority recognized and authorized by others is consistent with both congregational polity and the rhetoric of a priesthood of all believers. The location of authority in the process of being routinized was found among a religious group that is itself undergoing considerable change.
Third birth intentions in Canada
(1997) Wang, Hui
The survival of any society partly depends on how efficiently its members replace themselves. Aggregate shifts in third birth rates have important implications for the future state of Canadian society. Using data from the 1995 Canadian General Social Survey, this study examines the intentions to have a third child among a sample of men and women who have had two children. The results show that fewer than 15% of respondents intend a third child, nearly 20% are uncertain about having a third child, and almost two-thirds of respondents intend to stop childbearing at parity 2. The multivariate analyses indicate that demographic factors have strong effects on third birth intentions and uncertainty. In particular, intentions and uncertainty decline with age and heterogamy in union status, but increase with remarriage. However, characteristics of individuals' existing children, such as sex, and the age of the youngest child do not significantly influence their third birth intentions. The effects of socioeconomic factors are generally weak and insignificant, although employed women are less likely to intend a third child than women who are not employed outside the home. Cultural background and gender role attitudes are also important in that Catholics, regular church attenders, and those with traditional values and attitudes are more likely to intend a third child. Moreover, the determinants of intending a third child are found to be relevant to uncertainty. Given the large proportion of couples who are uncertain about their fertility plans, the substantial degree of inconsistency between dichotomous intentions and fertility behaviour is not surprising. Further, uncertain individuals are easily influenced by period-specific factors, such as socioeconomic conditions and population policy. If there are positive reinforcements, uncertain couples may revise their uncertainty toward intentions for having a third child. Consequently, the overall fertility rate may increase. Similarly, negative reinforcements may prolong or induce a further decline in fertility.
Gendered strategies for coping with widowhood : a life-course perspective
(1994) Vido, Eva
Elderly widowed men and women must deal with various personal, social, cultural and situational difficulties associated with the life-course stage of widowhood. The experience of widowhood in old age is often very traumatic, requiring the widowed individual to respond with a set of different coping strategies to readjust to the new demands of life as a single person after many years of coupled coexistence. While it cannot be successfully argued for whom, men or women, widowhood is more difficult, I propose that the nature of difficulties, at least in some aspects, differs according to gender. Emerging from my study is the general finding that elderly men differ from elderly women in their life-course experiences, not least of all childhood, education, marriage, parenting, employment, and friendships. The gendered experience of these life-course events leads to differences in coping with widowhood and its accompanying stress. The dimensions of the gendered difference and the links between life-course experience and that of widowhood are explored through in-depth interviews with six widows and six widowers. The findings are discussed in relation to such themes as social and cultural elements in Canada, role of religion in widowhood, marital experience and its effect on widowhood, and, ultimately, loneliness.
Prescription drug use by the elderly population of British Columbia
(1986) Tuominen, Jean Dell
The theory of ageism posits that the elderly members of society are discriminated against and treated as deviants. In response to ageism , social control is applied through the medical profession. An elderly person is brought into more frequent contact with physicians as chronic illnesses and diseases develop and increase. By seeking treatment for these health problems, the older individual may experience medical mistreatment, including the overprescription of drugs. The purpose of this study was to investigate and establish the levels of use of prescription drugs by the population of B.C. aged 65 and older . Using B.C . Pharmacare data for 1984, the cost and number of prescriptions were analysed, comparing consumption by the community-based elderly with that of the elderly in nursing homes. Both populations were found to receive a high number of prescriptions per person , particularly in the Central Nervous System therapeutic class. Nursing home elderly, when compared to community- based elderly, received approximately 300 per cent more prescriptions per person, with a difference ranging from +100 per cent (for Anti - infectives) to +1,086 per cent (for Gastrointestinal agents) and +l,291 per cent (for Vitamins). In the area of prescriptions for Central Nervous System drugs, nursing home patients received 354 per cent more prescriptions than community-based elderly . This includes 499 per cent more milligrams per person for selected C. N. S . drug families . Nursing home patients also received 4,424 per cent more milligrams of tranquilizers per person than the community-based elderly. The results indicate the need for further study into the prescription of drugs for the elderly, but particularly those in nursing homes.

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